Language change

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Language change or language dynamics describes the change or development of a language and is researched in historical linguistics and sociolinguistics . Expediency, evolution, but also analogy , borrowing and phonetic law are seen as essential driving forces of language change .

From the point of view of structuralism , language change means the history ( diachrony ) of an element of a synchronous language level or the relationship between two synchronous language levels.

From the point of view of quantitative linguistics , two aspects of language change are particularly important: the course of the language change process over time ( Language Change Act , Piotrowski Law ) and the effect of the many influencing factors that trigger and control language change ( linguistic synergetics / Köhler's control circuit).

Factors for language change

Peter von Polenz names the following factors for language change:

  1. Language economy : Changes that arise because speakers or writers use reduced language for reasons of time and convenience. (In the latest literature, however, “economy” is understood in context as the (result of) a cost-benefit analysis, i.e. how do I have to express myself in order to achieve a certain goal? See the work by Rudi Keller mentioned below . )
  2. Innovation : Changes that arise because the familiar inventory of language is not sufficiently suitable for creative and non-conformist activities and seems to be in need of development.
  3. Variation: The language users are flexible with regard to the choice of language means, depending on the communicative conditions and purposes.
  4. Evolution : the use of language and the influence of social forces on language use cause language change.

Special case technical language

In technical terms, technical terms are re-standardized over time. In the trade today, for example, it is called screwdrivers instead of screwdrivers .

Models of language change

There are different views on language change:

Speech organism

The linguist Hermann Paul , who came from the young grammar school , developed a theory of language change in the principles of language history , the starting point of which is a criticism of the historical-descriptive grammar, in which the phenomenon of language change can only be derived from theoretical abstractions of observed facts. As an example, Paul mentions the process of etymological descriptions that suggest to the reader that a word developed from a word uttered in the past:

“It is a misleading expression to say that a word was created from a word spoken in an earlier time. As a physiological-physical product, the word disappears without a trace after the bodies set in motion have come to rest again. And the physical impression on the listener also goes away. "

- Hermann Paul

The actual carriers of historical development, on the other hand, are to be located in unconscious, purposeful and spontaneously occurring cognitive processes. Under the term of the linguistic or psychological organism, Paul summarizes such cognitive relationships as a constantly changing entity, which is characterized by unconsciously occurring association relationships of different groups of ideas. With ideas, Paul understands the complex structuring and coordination of knowledge, which includes, for example, the stringing and grouping of sounds, syntactic patterns or motor movement patterns of speech, including the "accompanying feelings and strivings", referring to the findings of psychology available at the time . According to Paul, the problem of analyzing the linguistic organism consists in the lack of direct observability and the problem of the alien psychic , which is already known in philosophy , This means that mental processes can only be observed in one's own person through suggestive introspection , while the assumption that other individuals share similar psychological experiences is only based on conclusions by analogy . The interaction of an individual language organism ( idiolectal influences) with the general language usage ends with the death of the speaker, so that older language norms are retained, but even presuppose a future change through "spontaneous drives", provided that these prove to be expedient and are more systematic Enforce form. The "greater or lesser expediency of the created structures" is "determining for the preservation or destruction of the same" and is accordingly based on the laws of organic nature described by Darwin . The phenomenon of stasis, which opposes the process of modifying and leveling language, is not a negative process, but should be assessed as the "non-occurrence of [modifying] processes", so that not every linguistic innovation necessarily immediately displaces an existing one. Against this background, Paul does not shift the problem of language change to an alleged development of something that is causally independently expressed physically, but to the individual speech activity brought about by unconscious and purposeful mental processes, the product of which determines what is physically expressed and as a physical fact by means of causal influence on other language organisms individual speaker can have a systematic effect, while there is no causal relationship between the utterances themselves. From today's point of view, some analogies to cognitive linguistics and to the language change theory of Rudi Keller can be shown , as the following quotations prove:

Language change according to Hermann Paul Change of language according to Rudi Keller
“Every change in language usage is a product of the spontaneous instincts of the individual on the one hand and the relationships described on the other. If a spontaneous instinct is spread evenly over an entire linguistic area in a majority, it will quickly establish itself. " “Our everyday random rule violations leave no traces in the language. Only for systematic rule violations is it true that they are the new rules of tomorrow. But what creates the systematic nature of our rule violations? The answer is: We act - without being aware of this - according to certain strategies or maxims. "
Speech organism Cognitive linguistics
“It is just as important as a matter of course that this organism of groups of ideas is in constant change in every individual. First of all, every single moment that is not strengthened by renewing the impression or reintroducing it into consciousness continues to lose strength. Second, every act of speaking, hearing or thinking adds something new. " “If, for example, we hear a sentence over and over again, the neural circuits that >> calculate << its meaning are activated correspondingly frequently. And as neurons keep firing in these circuits , the synapses get stronger and the circuits solidify. "

Invisible hand

Language change is seen as the result of the action of an invisible hand . The most important proponent of this theory is Rudi Keller from the University of Düsseldorf. The language change is understood here neither as a natural phenomenon nor as an artefact, but arises from the individual actions of the individuals as an unwanted and unplanned structure. Uncoordinated behavior leads to a coordinated structure rather than a quasi-coordination. Language as a spontaneous order is an effect of the work of the invisible hand. According to Keller, language and language change are a third kind of phenomenon , i.e. neither made by humans (artefact) nor a natural phenomenon, but the causal consequence (macro level) of a multitude of individual, intentional actions (micro level). Language change is taking place in detail through the use of language itself. Keller refers to illustrate his theory, among others, to the fable of the bees occurring Mandeville's paradox , the negative connotations and morally strictly intrinsically related actions reprehensible ( vice ) unexpectedly becoming a functioning and prosperous society led. A special case of language change is the change in meaning . According to Rudi Keller, word meanings change when the rules of use change, because according to Ludwig Wittgenstein , the meaning of a word is its regular use within a language system. When the meaning changes, the speakers change the rules of use of a word (through the action of the invisible hand) by the fact that the speakers generate an initially occasional meaning so often that the linguistic community learns over time. Morphological change usually arises from rule violations, meaning change as the specification of meaning through rule-compliant special use under the action of the invisible hand.

Preference model

Language change can be foreseen to a certain extent from the language system, since change processes affect particularly characteristic elements, i.e. irregularities usually tend to be reduced. The emergence of new irregularities is a by-product of regularizations in other areas.

Grammaticalization model

Language change is seen as directed, because lexemes usually become grammatical elements. A development from grammemes to lexemes, however, is rare or even impossible.

Sociolinguistic model

Language change depends on social factors: forms and structures that have a higher prestige tend to prevail in language change.

Function model (Köhler's control circuit)

The linguistic synergetics makes it possible to mathematically model the influence of the needs that the speakers / listeners place on their language and their effect on the design of the language. The model envisages a number of such needs and is open to more. In addition to the need for economy, z. For example, a need for specification can also be expected, for example when terms are to be defined as precisely as possible.

Language dynamics theory

In their speech dynamics theory published in 2011, Jürgen Erich Schmidt and Joachim Herrgen differentiate between three synchronization acts, micro, meso and macro synchronization, according to which speech dynamic processes take place. The term synchronization is to be understood as the opposite of linguistic synchronicity , since the latter describes static states and thus requires a process-independent jump from language state to language state, which is inadequate to describe a highly dynamic system such as language insofar as its underlying laws are not terminological is able to describe. With the introduction of the concept of synchronization, the temporal dimension in particular should be taken into account as a constitutive and compulsory component of any linguistic interaction. The general term of synchronization is to be understood as "matching competency differences in the performance act ", the consequence of which causes a modification or stabilization of one's own individual language behavior and knowledge within a communication situation. The starting point and first level of every synchronization act is microsynchronization:

" We understand microsynchronization to be punctual modifications based on individual interaction and, at the same time, stabilization of individual linguistic knowledge."

- Jürgen Erich Schmidt, Joachim Herrgen

Mesosynchronizations , on the other hand, represent a systematically emerging sequence of synchronized acts of synchronization over a longer period of time within certain groups ( peer groups , marriage and family life).

Macrosynchronizations , on the other hand, are to be understood as alignment processes over very long periods of time, "with which members align themselves with a common norm." And "between which there is no need for personal contact." An example of the last type can be found in the Luther Bible , which is based on Millions of speakers oriented over the centuries and thus left long-term traces in the history of German as a conventionalized artifact of language standardization. Likewise, the codification of the written language, for example evident from the decades-long orientation towards dictionaries such as Duden orthography, and the associated institutionally prescribed prescriptive standardization are part of such macro synchronization. The continuous process of language change accordingly takes place in time-delayed positive or negative feedback effects that have a modifying or stabilizing effect on the respective individual language behavior.

quantification

The degree of lexical change can be quantified . In the English language there has been a shift from more common words (e.g. house) to the use of less common words (e.g. building), but on a marginal level. In more than 300 years, the relative frequency of words in samples of English and American newspapers decreased by only about three units within a possible theoretical range of 208 units; H. about 1 to 2%.

See also

literature

  • Karl-Heinz Best : Language acquisition, language change and vocabulary growth in texts. On the scope of the Piotrowski law. In: Glottometrics. 6, 2003, ISSN  1617-8351 , pp. 9-34.
  • Karl-Heinz Best, Jörg Kohlhase (Ed.): Exact language change research. Theoretical contributions, statistical analyzes and work reports. (= Göttingen writings on linguistics and literary studies. 2). edition herodot, Göttingen 1983, ISBN 3-88694-024-1 .
  • Wolfgang Desnizza: Neuroscientific Theory of Language Change. An interdisciplinary contribution to the theory of language change. (= Applied Linguistics. 7). P. Lang, Frankfurt am Main et al. 2001, ISBN 3-631-37273-6 .
  • Rudi Keller : Language change. About the invisible hand in language. (= UTB for Science - Uni Pocket Books - Linguistics. 1567). 3rd, revised and expanded edition. Francke, Tübingen et al. 2003, ISBN 3-8252-1567-9 .
  • Reinhard Köhler: On linguistic synergetics. Structure and dynamics of the lexicon. (= Quantitative linguistics. 31). Brockmeyer, Bochum 1986, ISBN 3-88339-538-2 . (At the same time: Bochum, Ruhr-Univ., Diss., 1985)
  • George Lakoff, Elisabeth Wehling: Quietly into the brain. Political language and its secret power. 3. Edition. Carl-Auer Verlag, Heidelberg 2014, ISBN 978-3-89670-695-9 .
  • Damaris Nübling, Antje Dammel , Janet Duke, Renata Szczepaniak: Historical Linguistics of German. An introduction to the principles of language change. 3. Edition. Narr, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-8233-6615-7 .
  • Nabil Osman: Small lexicon of submerged words. Word extinction since the end of the 18th century. (= Beck series. 487). 11th, unchanged edition. Beck, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-406-45997-8 .
  • Hermann Paul : Principles of the history of language . Niemeyer, Halle 1880. (Text in the Gutenberg project)
  • Peter von Polenz : German language history from the late Middle Ages to the present . Volume 1: Introduction. Basic concepts. German in the early bourgeois period. (= Göschen Collection. 2237). de Gruyter, Berlin et al. York 1991, ISBN 3-11-012458-0 . (Also: 2nd, revised and supplemented edition. Ibid. 2000, ISBN 3-11-016478-7 , ( De Gruyter Study Book )).
  • Gerold Schmidt: Language change and new language formation through the unification of Europe. In: mother tongue. 84, 1974, ISSN  0027-514X , pp. 409-419.

Web links

Wiktionary: Sprachwandel  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Peter von Polenz : German language history from the late Middle Ages to the present . Volume 1: Introduction. Basic concepts. 14th to 16th century. 2nd, revised and expanded edition. de Gruyter, Berlin / York 2000, ISBN 3-11-016478-7 , p. 21ff.
  2. ↑ See Konrad Körner : Linguistics and evolution theory (Three essays by August Schleicher , Ernst Haeckel and Wilhelm Bleek ) . John Benjamin, Amsterdam-Philadelphia 1983.
  3. ↑ Principles of the history of language: General information on the nature of language development. 1880, p. 23.
  4. ↑ Principles of the history of language: General information on the nature of language development. 1880, p. 21.
  5. ↑ Principles of the history of language: General information on the nature of language development. 1880, p. 25.
  6. ↑ a b Principles of the history of language: General information on the nature of language development. 1880, p. 41.
  7. ↑ Principles of the history of language: General information on the nature of language development. 1880, p. 27.
  8. ↑ Principles of the history of language: General information on the nature of language development. 1880, p. 29.
  9. ↑ Language change. BDÜ 2000: Fascination Language - The Challenge of Translation. 2004, p. 11.
  10. ↑ Principles of the history of language: General information on the nature of language development. 1880, p. 22.
  11. ↑ Quietly into the brain. Political language and its secret power. 2014, p. 74.
  12. ↑ Language change. About the invisible hand in language. 2014, pp. 51–57.
  13. ↑ Linguistic Dynamics: An Introduction to Modern Regional Language Research , 2011, pp. 21–25.
  14. ↑ Linguistic Dynamics: An Introduction to Modern Regional Language Research , 2011, p. 28.
  15. ↑ Linguistic Dynamics: An Introduction to Modern Regional Language Research. 2011, p. 29.
  16. ↑ Linguistic Dynamics: An Introduction to Modern Regional Language Research , 2011, p. 32.
  17. ↑ Linguistic Dynamics: An Introduction to Modern Regional Language Research. 2011, p. 32.
  18. ^ Sven Form: Reaching Wuthering Heights with Brave New Words: The Influence of Originality of Words on the Success of Outstanding Best-Sellers . In: The Journal of Creative Behavior . January 30, 2018, doi : 10.1002 / jocb.230 ( wiley.com [accessed July 20, 2019]).