Tonkin campaign

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Tonkin campaign
The French conquest of Bac Ninh on March 12, 1884
The French conquest of Bac Ninh on March 12, 1884
date June 1883 to April 1886
place Tonkin , Southeast China and Taiwan
Casus Belli Supremacy in Tonkin
output French victory
Territorial changes Annam and Tonkin
consequences France establishes a protectorate over Annam and Tonkin.
Parties to the conflict

FranceFrance France

Qing Dynasty flag Empire China Black Flags Empire Vietnam
Black flags banners

Troop strength
up to 35,000 soldiers (summer 1885) up to 65,000 soldiers
losses

2,100 dead and wounded

over 10,000 dead and wounded

The Tonkin Campaign ( French Campagne du Tonkin ) was an armed conflict that lasted from June 1883 to April 1886 and in which France alternated against the armies of the Black Flag , Vietnam and China for supremacy in Tonkin and, connected to it, Annam fought. The situation of the French was made even more difficult in August 1884 by the outbreak of the Sino-French War and in July 1885 by the Can Vuong uprising in Annam. The main burden of the fighting on the French side was borne by the Tonkin Expeditionary Force and the Tonkin Flotilla . However, especially in the Sino-French War, the French Far East Squadron intervened in the conflict. The official end of the campaign came in April 1886 when the Tonkin Expeditionary Force was significantly reduced in size and converted into an occupation force. However, the Tonkins area could not be considered pacified until 1896, as there were repeated surveys of the local population.

Prehistory - Hanoi and Nam Dinh (April 1882 to July 1883)

Henri Rivière

Nine years after Francis Garnier failed in an attempt to forcibly conquer Tonkin for France, clashes broke out again when the French naval officer Henri Rivière and a small unit of marines occupied the citadel of Hanoi on April 25, 1882 . He hurriedly had it evacuated and apologized for this incident, but at the same time requested reinforcements in France, since, with the backing of the state, he saw the opportunity to establish a French protectorate over Tonkin after all, after having succeeded in Annam in 1874 was.

When the expected reinforcements arrived in February 1883, Rivière began to make preparations to capture the city of Nam Định and establish a line of communication from it to the sea. The project succeeded with the French victory in the battle of Nam Dinh on March 27, 1883.

During the absence of Rivière and most of the French troops, a Vietnamese army under the command of Hoang Ke Viem tried to overrun the French positions, which were located near the city, despite the incident surrounding the conquest of the citadel of Hanoi. However, these were able to repel the attack in the Battle of Gia Cuc on March 27 and 28 and inflict heavy losses on the enemy.

These activities, which can be traced back to the initiative of Henri Rivière, are in part attributed to the Tonkin campaign, but mostly their start is dated to June 1883, after the French government had decided to send further reinforcements to Tonkin. This was a consequence of Rivière's defeat and death in the Battle of the Paper Bridge on May 19, 1883, when his troops were captured and defeated by a numerically superior Black Flag unit under Liu Yongfu . From the troops already in Tonkin and the reinforcements, the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps was formed, which was initially placed under the command of Brigadier General Alexandre-Eugène Bouët , the highest-ranking officer of the marine infantry in Cochinchina .

The battle at Nam Dinh on July 19, 1883

The French position in Tonkin turned out to be relatively weak when Bouët arrived. There were only small garrisons in Hanoi, Haiphong and Nam Dinh as well as isolated outposts at Hon Gai and Qui Nhon in Annam, which made an offensive against the troops Liu Yongfu and Hoan Ke Viem seem impossible for the time being. Bouët therefore first ordered the evacuation of the outposts at Qhi Nhon, Hon Gai and Nam Dinh, but later changed the order to the effect that Nam Dinh should not be evacuated, but reinforced and held. For the remainder of June, the French holed up in their garrisons and fought off small disruptive maneuvers by the Vietnamese against the posts in Hanoi and Nam Dinh without major difficulties.

The arrival of reinforcements from France and New Caledonia and the recruitment of Cochinese and Tonkinese auxiliaries allowed Bouët to go on the offensive in mid-July. On July 19, the battalion leader and commander-in-chief of the French garrison in Nam Dinh attacked Hoang Ke Viem's ​​troops stationed around the city and drove them away, which took the enemy pressure off the French position there.

Establishment of the French Protectorate (August 1883)

Courbet and Harmand in Hue in August 1883

The arrival of Admiral Amédée-Anatole Courbet with considerable reinforcements in Halong Bay in July 1883 further strengthened the French position in Tonkin. Although the French were now the unreservedly most powerful military force in Tonkin, it was clear to them that they had to come to an agreement with the Vietnamese court in Huế before they could completely smash Liu Yongfu's black flags. The minimum goal was the establishment of a French protectorate over Tonkin, which, if necessary, should be achieved by means of coercion. After the establishment of such a protectorate, it would have been possible for the French to declare the black flags as enemies of the country and, if necessary, to call in Vietnamese troops to support them in the fight against them.

On July 30, Admiral Courbet, General Bouët and the newly appointed civilian commissioner general for Tonkin, François-Jules Harmand , met in Haiphong for deliberations on how to proceed. At that meeting they agreed that Bouët should launch an attack on the black flag positions at Phu Hoai and the Day River as soon as possible. Since the Vietnamese court continued to support them and the Vietnamese Prince Hoang and his army were hostile to the French, they decided, mainly at Harmand's efforts, to ask the French government for permission to attack the defensive positions at Huế. After the encirclement of the city, an ultimatum should be issued to recognize the French protectorate over Tonkin or to face an immediate attack by the besieging troops.

The proposal was confirmed by the Ministry of Navy on August 11, and on August 18, Admiral Courbet's squadron began shelling the forts of Thuan An in advance of Huế. On August 20, two companies of French marines, supported by sailors from three French warships, including the armored corvette Atalante , landed on the beach and stormed the forts at the Battle of Thuan . In the afternoon of the same day, the two gunboats Lynx and Vipère ran into the mouth of the Perfume River to cover an attack by the landed troops on Huế itself at any time.

Signing of the Treaty of Hue on August 25, 1883

Since the Vietnamese could not muster enough troops to defend the city, they asked for negotiations and a ceasefire. On August 25, Harmand dictated the Treaty of Hu to the Vietnamese negotiators and forced them to sign it. Through this treaty, the Vietnamese court recognized the French occupation of Cochinchina and the French protectorate over both Annam and Tonkin and undertook to withdraw all of its own troops from Tonkin. In return, the Vietnamese imperial family retained its throne and could formally continue to rule, but only after consultation with France. For this purpose, it was decided to send a French resident, who was subordinate to General Commissioner Tonkins, to Huế, who served as an advisor to the emperor. In order to prevent an attempted insurrection, a French garrison also occupied the forts at Thuan An permanently. In return for the cancellation of its debts, Vietnam also ceded its Binh Thuan province to the French colony of Cochinchina and allowed the French to swap administrative areas between Annam and Tonkin. As a final point, the French guaranteed, in addition to free trade on the Red River, to drive the black flags, which allegedly wanted to destroy Vietnam and annex China, from Tonkin in order to secure the internal integrity of the country and the imperial rule.

Phu Hoai, Palan and Hai Duong (August to November 1883)

Liu Yongfu

In the meantime, as agreed at the Haiphong Conference, General Bouët began an offensive against Liu Yongfu's black flags. On August 15 and September 1, he attacked their defensive positions on the Day River, but could not achieve a decisive breakthrough in the Battle of Phu Hoai and the Battle of Palan , which is why the world public regards them as a defeat of France despite the partial French success were. At the same time, however, Lt. Col. Brionval, who was subordinate to Bouët and who proceeded with a unit of marine infantry and Cochinese auxiliaries against the Vietnamese positions in Hai Duong Province , managed to storm the defenses of the city of the same name on August 13. This skirmish was known for the atrocities perpetrated by both sides. During the storming, the French soldiers discovered the hung bodies of several missing French and Cochin-Chinese soldiers of the expeditionary corps, which clearly showed signs of torture. In revenge for this, the French killed all captured Vietnamese soldiers with bayonets after the battle . After conquering the city, the French occupied the local citadel and set up an additional post on the Elephant Mountain, a few kilometers north, in order to secure the communication lines on the waterway between Haiphong and Hanoi.

In November 1883, the French occupied the cities of Ninh Binh, Hung Yen and Quang Yen to further strengthen their position in the Red River Delta. The occupation of the citadel of Ninh Binh was of particular importance, as its high position made it possible to use artillery to control all through traffic on the Red River and to block it if necessary. Furthermore, the Vietnamese governor of Ninh Binh, who was considered hostile to the French and who had tried to hinder Henri Rivière's advance on Nam Dinh in March 1883, was to be deposed. As they expected resistance, the French sent a unit of marine infantry under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Pierre de Badens and the two gunboats Léopard and Pulvier against the city, which was abandoned by the Vietnamese troops without resistance .

Soon after it was signed in Tonkin, the Huế contract proved to be partially worthless. Vietnamese administrative officials who had been sent to support the French behaved uncooperatively or refused to cooperate completely. In addition, Prince Hoang refused to withdraw his troops from Tonkin. On the contrary, he encouraged the Black Flags to take even more active action against the French, which led to repeated attacks on French positions and units from the autumn of 1883. The small garrisons in Palan and Batang were attacked, and on November 17th, Hai Duong almost fell in an attack by around 2000 black flag attackers who were supported by Prince Hoang's troops. Only the arrival of the gunboat Lynx was able to repel the attack at the last moment.

Son Tay (December 1883)

The conquest of Son Tay on December 16, 1883

From December 1883, after Admiral Courbet had taken over command of the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps from General Bouët in October, the French went back on the offensive and sent a force of around 9,000 soldiers to smash the black flags at Son Tay in a decisive battle . This advance was politically explosive, as the French would come into direct conflict with Chinese troops for the first time at Son Tay. China, Vietnam's traditional protective power, had been more or less openly supporting the black flags for several months and had troops stationed in Son Tay, Lang Son, Bac Ninh and other places in Tonkin in order to advance the French advance northwards towards the Chinese border hinder. The French government feared that an attack on Son Tay could lead to an undeclared war with China, but contemplated that a quick push and victory might make the Chinese more likely to accept the inevitable and withdraw. When the political negotiations over a Chinese withdrawal were declared to have failed on December 10th, Courbet was authorized to conquer Son Day.

During the Son Tay campaign , the toughest fighting France had ever fought in Tonkin occurred. Although the Vietnamese and Chinese troops in Son Tays did not take very active part in the defense, the black flags were able to successfully repel the French attacks several times. On December 14th, a French attack on the outer defenses at Phu Sa failed and led to a disorderly retreat, which led Liu Yongfu to launch a counterattack on the French lines the following night, which was however also repulsed. After a day of rest, Admiral Courbet ordered the attack again on the afternoon of December 16, which had been prepared by an intensive artillery bombardment. Against 17 clock could Battalion of the Foreign Legion and the Marines the west gate Son Tay storm and fight his way into the city. The black flags withdrew into the citadel and a few hours later finally vacated the city under cover of darkness. While the French lost 83 dead and 320 wounded in the conquest of Son Day, the Black Flags lost so many men and equipment that they were no longer considered a serious threat to the French position in the future.

Bac Ninh and Hung Hoa (January to July 1884)

On December 16, 1883, the day on which troops under his command had successfully conquered Son Tay, Admiral Courbet was replaced by Division General Charles-Théodore Millot as Commander in Chief of the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps. This was justified by the fact that the expeditionary corps had grown so large that it was transformed into an army division consisting of two brigades and Courbet was not suitable for such a large command. The French high command also trusted Millot to deal with a Chinese intervention against the French position in Tonkin, which was expected after the conquest of Son Day. After exhausting what they considered to be the last diplomatic possibilities to move the Chinese troops peacefully to withdraw from Tonkin, the French government gave Millot permission to take military action against the fortress of Bắc Ninh , which had been occupied by the Chinese Guangxi army since autumn 1882 . In March 1884 he began the Bac Ninh campaign for this purpose , in which he was able to drive the Chinese from Bac Ninh and its surroundings with a total of around 11,000 French, Algerian and Vietnamese troops. This represented the largest gathering of French troops and their auxiliaries in Tonkin until then.

After the success at Bac Ninh, Millot took action against various Chinese garrisons and posts that had not been vacated when the Guangxi Army withdrew. At the beginning of April he decided to take action against the heavily fortified positions of the black flags near Hung Hoa in order to drive them across the Chinese border. On April 11, Millot's troops succeeded in driving the Black Flags out of their defensive positions at Hung Hoa and Dong Yan by flanking without complaining of a single death.

After this defeat, the Black Flags withdrew in a westerly direction, up the Red River to Thanh Quan, while the Vietnamese forces of Hoang Ke Viems withdrew to the southern province of Thanh Hóa on the border between Annam and Tonkin, where the French have not yet found any Had set up garrisons. General Millot divided his troops into several parts in pursuit of the enemy. Two battalions of light infantry under Lieutenant Colonel Letellier were assigned to pursue the Black Flags, while the remnants of the 1st Brigade under General Brière de l'Isle pursued Prince Hoang's troops. By the beginning of May, Brière de l'Isle had succeeded in encircling the Vietnamese near Phu Ngo, a few kilometers northwest of Ninh Binh. However, the French high command forbade him to attack because there were rumors that China was still interested in a diplomatic settlement over Tonkin's future.

At the same time, however, on May 11th, French troops under the battalion commander Reygasse attacked the Chinese garrison of Thái Nguyên and drove their defenders away . In addition, a division of marine infantry under the command of Admiral Courbet took action against alleged pirate bases in the Gulf of Tonkin.

On May 11, 1884, the same day that French troops captured Thai Nguyen, the negotiators of China and France, Li Hongzhang and François-Ernest Fournier, signed the Tientsin Agreement . This agreement provided for the immediate withdrawal of all Chinese troops from Tonkin and the recognition of all points of the Huế Treaty by China. This practically meant the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate over Tonkin.

The Tientsin Accords allowed France to further strengthen its positions in large parts of Tonkins in May and June 1884. By the end of June, advanced posts had been set up and fortified in Hung Hoa, Tuyen Quang, Phu Lang Thuong and Thai Nguyen. Together with the garrisons set up further east in Huai Duong and Quang Yen the previous autumn, a band of defensive positions was formed, which further strengthened French control over the Red River delta. Further south, the positions in Son Tay, Hanoi, Nam Dinh, Ninh Binh and Bac Ninh were expanded, in some cases considerably. From these expanded positions, the remaining fortresses such as Son Tay in northern Tonkin were to be occupied by the French after the Chinese withdrawal agreed in the agreement.

During the advance of the French troops, however, there was a clash with Chinese troops at Bac Le on June 23, which refused to leave their positions. China's refusal to pay compensation to France for the battle at Bac Le led to the outbreak of the Sino-French War two months later .

The Sino-French War (August 1884 to April 1885)

Vietnamese villagers have to show their respect to the French marching past by kneeling down.

The outbreak of the Sino-French War in August 1884 disrupted the French schedule for complete domination of Tonkins and confronted the offensive forces of the Expeditionary Corps with an attack by Chinese troops on their positions in the Red River Delta. In September 1884 General Millot resigned from his post as commander-in-chief of the French troops in Tonkin and handed over the command to his previous deputy Louis Alexandre Brière de l'Isle . In his last order of the day, Millot warned the troops against countering the increasing arrogance in their ranks. At the time of the change of command there were a total of about 20,000 French soldiers in Tonkin, who were increasingly bossy towards the local population. For example, it was increasingly becoming a custom for local civilians to kneel down when French soldiers marched by. Millot saw this behavior as a danger to the acceptance of French rule and therefore not only ordered General Brière de l'Isle to follow him as before, but also warned that respect for the hard-working population would improve the situation of all French , because that way the acceptance for their presence is greater.

From then on, Brière de l'Isle attached great importance to training his troops and thereby professionalizing them. As a first official act, he deployed larger contingents of troops to fight Vietnamese irregulars in the rear area and then to block the border between Annam and Tonkin by guards. This included the permanent expulsion of Prince Hoang's remaining troops and the permanent occupation of My Luong, Ke Son and Phu Ngo. In this way he wanted to secure his hinterland before he rallied his troops to attack the Chinese in the north.

The Battle of Kep on October 8, 1884

In October 1884 General François de Négrier succeeded in repelling a Chinese advance on the Red River Delta with the Kep campaign . In a subsequent counterattack, Négrier's troops advanced into the valley of the river Lục Nam and occupied the places Kep and Chu with the intention of being able to advance from these later on to Lang Son, which was considered the center of the Chinese troops in Tonkin. In the western delta area, where the French post in Tuyen Quang was besieged by troops of the Chinese Yunnan Army , the French built and fortified further posts during the autumn of 1884. At that time, they did not consider a release of Tuyen Quang to be possible due to the lack of troops.

In February 1885, Brière de l'Isle succeeded in forcing the Guangxi army to retreat in the Lang Son campaign . The occupation of Dong Song on February 6th threatened the supply and retreat routes from the Chinese perspective and prompted the commanders of the Guangxi Army to withdraw from the Song Thuong valley to the west of Lang Son. The French occupation of Lang Son on February 13th gave Brière the opportunity to use the Mandarin Strait, which was now completely under his control, to use troops from the south to relieve Tuyen Quang. On March 2, the Black Flag supporting the siege of Tuyen Quang was finally beaten at the Battle of Hoa Moc , which resulted in the siege being lifted.

Throughout March, the French set up additional posts in the north of Tonkins and widened the Mandarin Road so that it could also be used by handcarts. Further east, other troops were advancing along the coast towards the Chinese border. After some time of reorganization, the French began a new offensive in the western area from the end of March to drive the troops of the Yunnan Army from Tonkin. After defeats at Bang Bo and Phu Lam Tao , rumors arose in Lang Son of the advance of a strong Chinese force on the city, which prompted the local commander, Paul-Gustave Herbinger , to hurry to the city and relinquish equipment and supplies there vacate. This evacuation led to a government crisis in France and ultimately to the end of the Sino-French War in April 1885.

The "Pacification" of Tonkin (April 1885 to April 1886)

Zouaves prepare to be shipped to Tonkin in Algiers, January 1885

Although the Sino-French War ended in a draw, China renounced its historical sovereignty over Vietnam in the peace treaty concluded in Tientsin on June 9, 1885 and recognized the French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin. In theory, France had now achieved its goal and officially regained control of Tonkin, but in practice it looked different and a proverb from that time said that France had made its claim over Tonkin official, now all it had to do was conquer the country .

After the hasty retreat from Tonkin, further reinforcements were sent to Tonkin. Together with the troops already on the way since the beginning of the year, the manpower of the French increased to around 35,000 soldiers by the summer of 1885. Due to this increase, an additional division was formed, whereby the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps now consisted of four brigades in two divisions. General Brière de l'Isle retained command of the first division, but had to cede supreme command of the expeditionary corps to the newly arrived General Philippe-Marie-Henri Roussel de Courcy on June 1 . The second division was taken over by General Négrier.

During the command of de Courcy, there was increasing resistance from the civilian population in both Annam and Tonkin against French rule. In the summer and autumn of 1885 there was also a cholera epidemic , during which, despite restrictive quarantine measures, more soldiers of the expeditionary corps died than during the entire nine-month Sino-French War. On July 2, 1885, Vietnamese irregulars attacked French troops near Huế. A march into Annam, where de Courcy suspected the bases of the rebels, was forbidden by the new French government. However, De Courcy carried out several landing operations along the coastline. As a pretext he used the murder of several Vietnamese Catholics and that he had to protect them. Mainly, however, it was about occupying strategically important coastal towns.

In Tonkin, the withdrawal of the Chinese troops caused a collapse of public order in places. Most of the Chinese soldiers left the country quickly, but the often numerous recruited or hired Vietnamese auxiliary workers were either left behind or deserted because they had not received any pay for months. Most of these former soldiers had kept their weapons and now turned to banditry or pretended to fight for the liberation of the country from the French, for which they ate from the population. This ensured that the French influence in the summer of 1885 was limited to the immediate vicinity of their bases. This was facilitated by the fact that de Courcy showed no particular interest in the northern areas. For the time being, he did not allow the bases cleared by the Chinese to be occupied, which enabled a network of resistance organizations to form there.

The only real success was achieved by an Algerian-Tonkinese force under Colonel Mourlan, who drove a large resistance group out of the Tam Dao Mountains and set up a garrison in Lien Son. Despite their large numbers, the Vietnamese did not fight, but withdrew to Thai Nguyen Province, where they tried to regroup.

Uniforms of the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps (from left Fusilier-Marin , marine infantryman, turco and naval artilleryman)

In response to criticism of his behavior, de Courcy replied repeatedly that the summer was unsuitable for larger operations with European troops due to the hot climate and that he was waiting for autumn. In October 1885 he finally set out larger columns to occupy the abandoned positions of the Chinese Yunnan Army. At Thanh May these troops encountered considerable resistance from militants. De Courcy therefore gathered around 7,000 soldiers and tried to encircle the city in order to crush the insurgents. However, they managed to break away in time and surrendered the city without a fight. They later gathered further upstream on the Red River around Thanh Quan.

In the first week of February 1886, two columns under General Jamont advanced on both sides of the river on Thanh Quan to catch the newly formed irregulars. However, these withdrew again, but this time finally dispersed into the woods. The French were able to occupy Van Ban Chau on February 17 and then stayed in their position for several weeks. This break had been ordered by the French government, which wanted to inform the Chinese government that the forces of the expeditionary force would soon reach their limit. The advance was then continued and on March 29, Lao Cai near the border was occupied. Further fortified posts were set up along the Red River along the way. General de Maussion received the supreme command of this north-western region.

In November 1885, de Courcy had sent more troops to the northeast of Tonkins to drive out the insurgents who were gaining power there. However, the column under General Sevière encountered less resistance than expected, which allowed the French to advance quickly into the unspecified border region with the Chinese province of Guangxi. The local border was only set in an agreement in 1887. General de Courcy was replaced in April 1886 by General Warnet as commander in chief. Though the pacification of Tonkin continued for years, Warnet's takeover is widely viewed as the endpoint of the Tonkin campaign. France had formally gained control of Tonkin and controlled all important places.

memory

Tonkin Commemorative Medal

The Tonkin campaign was remembered in France by the donation of a commemorative medal. Displeasure among the soldiers to whom this medal was awarded was that not all victories, but only a few, such as the Lang Son campaign, in which not all porters took part, were specifically mentioned on the back of the medal. Many felt that this did not adequately appreciate their commitment.

At the annual military parade in Paris on July 14, 1886, certain selected units that had participated in the Sino-French War were allowed to march. However, many of these participants were disappointed that only Lieutenant Colonel Marc-Edmond Dominé, who had led the French troops during the siege of Tuyen Quang, and the new Minister of War, Georges Boulanger, advanced, while Generals Brière de l'Isle and de Négrier did not were present. Especially Boulanger, suspected of planning a coup three years later and not serving in Tonkin, was not accepted.

Remarks

  1. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 140-144.
  2. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 149-150.
  3. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 150-151.
  4. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 158-162.
  5. ^ E. Duboc: Trente-cinq mois de campagne en Chine, au Tonkin. 1899, pp. 139-151.
  6. ↑ Lucian Huard: La guerre du Tonkin. 1887, pp. 84-88.
  7. ↑ Lucian Huard: La guerre du Tonkin. 1887, pp. 88-92.
  8. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 165-166.
  9. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 165-166.
  10. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, p. 166.
  11. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 162-167.
  12. ↑ Lucian Huard: La guerre du Tonkin. 1887, pp. 98-99.
  13. ↑ Lucian Huard: La guerre du Tonkin. 1887, pp. 98-99.
  14. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 167-168.
  15. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 146-147.
  16. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. 1934, pp. 171-177.
  17. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: Histoire militaire de l'Indochine française. 1931, pp. 75-80.
  18. ↑ August Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, pp. 186-187.
  19. ↑ Lucian Huard: La guerre du Tonkin. 1887, pp. 286-290.
  20. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: Histoire militaire de l'Indochine française. 1931, pp. 85-87.
  21. ↑ Maurice Loir: L'escadre de l'amiral Courbet. 1886, pp. 29-35.
  22. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, pp. 189-193.
  23. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, 187-189.
  24. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, pp. 193-196.
  25. ↑ Louis Huguet: En column: souvenirs de l'Extrême-Orient. 1888, pp. 18-19.
  26. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: Histoire militaire de l'Indochine française. 1931, pp. 94-96.
  27. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, pp. 234-237.
  28. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, pp. 237-241.
  29. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1931, pp. 241-246.
  30. ^ Jean-François-Alphonse Lecomte: Lang-Son: combats, retraite et négociations. 1895, p. 330.
  31. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, pp. 266-267.
  32. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: Histoire militaire de l'Indochine française. 1931, pp. 124-125.
  33. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, pp. 267-268.
  34. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, pp. 275-276.
  35. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: Histoire militaire de l'Indochine française. 1931, pp. 121-122.
  36. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: Histoire militaire de l'Indochine française. 1931, pp. 125-126.
  37. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: Histoire militaire de l'Indochine française. 1931, p. 125.
  38. ↑ Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine. 1934, pp. 284-288.
  39. ^ Jean Louis Armengaud: Lang-Son: journal des opérations qui ont précédé et suivi la prize de cette citadel. 1901, p. 76.
  40. ↑ Pierre Dukay: Les héros de Tuyen-Quan. 1933, pp. 118-124.

literature

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  • Louis Huguet: En colonne, souvenirs d'Extrême-Orient. Paris 1888. OCLC 458180295 .
  • Jean-François-Alphonse Lecomte: L'armée française au Tonkin: Guet-Apens de Bac-Lé. Berger-Levrault et Cie, Paris 1890. OCLC 251563432 .
  • Jean-François-Alphonse Lecomte: Lang-Son: combats retraite et negociations. H. Charles-Lavauzelle, Paris 1895. OCLC 23281089
  • Maurice Loir: L'escadre de l'amiral Courbet: notes et souvenirs par Maurice Loir. Berger-Levrault et Cie, Paris 1886. OCLC 464467212 .
  • Louis Roger Gérard de Marolles: La dernière Campagne du Commandant Rivière 1881-1883. Plon, Paris 1932. OCLC 562385473 .
  • Jean Randier: La Royale: l'histoire illustrée de la Marine nationale française. La Falaise, 2006, ISBN 2-35261-022-2 .
  • Hervé Bernard: Amiral Henri Rieunier, ministre de la Marine: La vie extraordinaire d'un grand marin 1833–1918. H. Bernard, Biarritz 2005. OCLC 162220822
  • Richard Sims: French Policy towards the Bakufu and Meiji Japan 1854–1895. Routledge, 1998, ISBN 1-873410-61-1 .
  • Auguste Thomazi: La conquête de l'Indochine: Avec vingt-deux croquis. Payot, Paris 1934. OCLC 458290895 .