Cape Town water crisis

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The graphic shows the amount of water that was present in the largest water reservoir in the Western Cape from June 30, 2013 to March 31, 2018. You can see the amount of water steadily decreasing as Cape Town's water crisis intensifies. You can also see that water consumption has been falling since the beginning of 2018. The calculations and forecasts indicated that in May 2018 only 12% of the original reserves would be left. These calculations are based on data prior to the water crisis. Data are taken from the Climate Systems Analysis Group (CSAG).

The Cape Town water crisis began in 2015 in the South African province of Western Cape due to drought and severe water shortages, which severely affected the city ​​of Cape Town .

The city calculated that due to dwindling water reserves, the municipal water supply would be suspended in April 2018 and published a plan for the "zero hour" ("day zero") at the beginning of 2018. Cape Town would have been the first major city that could no longer meet its own water needs.

Targeted savings measures and the simultaneous increase in the water supply reduced the daily water requirement to 500 million liters in March 2018. These measures and a high amount of precipitation increased the water level in the dams to 43% of their total storage capacity in June 2018 . Although the city announced that there is little chance that the "zero hour" will occur in 2019, the water-saving measures and the usage caps remained active. The aim was to fill the water reservoirs to 85% of their total storage capacity; on July 16, 2018, a fill level of 55.1% was achieved.

background

The region around Cape Town has a Mediterranean climate with warm and dry summers and rainfall in winter. The water is mainly provided by six large dams and reservoirs of the Western Cape water supply system. These are located in the mountainous regions around the city. The dams fill up with rainfall, especially in the winter months of the southern hemisphere from May to August. Water consumption increases in the summer months from November to April. The general water demand increases and additional water is needed for artificial irrigation .

Since 1995, Cape Town's population has increased from 2.4 million to 4.3 million in 2018. This corresponds to a population growth of 79% within 23 years. During the same period, the water storage volume only increased by 15%.

From 1950 to 1999, fresh water consumption in Cape Town increased by 4% per year in line with population growth. In 1999 the highest water consumption was at 335 million cubic meters. As early as the 1990s, plans were drawn up to meet the increasing demand for water. Due to the low rainfall in the winters 2000/2001 and 2003/2004, upper limits for water consumption were enforced for the first time in 2007. In 2000, construction began on the Berg River Dam , which the city initiated together with the then Ministry of Water Affairs . In addition, water management was introduced. By 2009 it was possible to increase the water storage capacity in Cape Town from 768 million cubic meters by 17% to 898 million cubic meters.

In 2007, the Department of Water and Forestry announced that Cape Town's water demand would exceed water supply unless serious water conservation and demand management measures were put in place. Despite the resulting successes, the severe drought from 2015 to 2017 could not be compensated for. This led to the regulation of water consumption as described.

causes

The main cause of the Cape Town water crisis was the extreme drought from 2015 to 2017, which destroyed all plans of the Ministry of Water and Wastewater . Added to this were the strong population growth (50% in a decade), the necessary artificial irrigation in agriculture, neozoa and poor compliance with the consumption restrictions imposed. Higher taxes for water consumption, optimization of the water pressure management in the system, reduced water loss due to repaired damage in the pipes and informing the population about water-saving options defused the situation.

A study by the University of Cape Town showed that the rainfall in Cape Town from 2015 to 2017 was exceptionally low compared to other periods statistically.

Some scientists speculated that the water crisis was compounded by global climate change . During the last century the global temperature has risen by 1 degree. Modeling for the climate of Cape Town shows that the temperature will rise by another 0.25 degrees over the next ten years, which would further exacerbate the drought. According to the calculations, there will also be less precipitation as a result . In addition, the Cape Town crisis could spread to other cities.

The Western Cape's water system continues to build on the hydrological parameters of the past. Climate change will affect the region's precipitation yield and evaporation . This is likely to lead to overuse and reduction of water resources. Agriculture is responsible for 29% of water consumption in the Western Cape. The consumption of this sector was also subject to severe restrictions during the drought.

Temporal sequence

Water level as a percentage of the maximum dam capacity after years
Main dams 16th July 2018 May 14, 2018 15th May 2017 May 15, 2016 May 15, 2015 May 15, 2014
Mountain river dam 84.7 39.2 32.4 27.2 54.0 90.5
Steenbras Lower 55.9 35.4 26.5 37.6 47.9 39.6
Steenbras Upper 97.0 59.6 56.7 56.9 57.8 79.1
Theewaterskloof Dam 40.7 12.0 15.0 31.3 51.3 74.5
Voelvlei Dam 54.6 14.5 17.2 21.3 42.5 59.5
Wemmershoek Dam 84.9 48.4 36.0 48.5 50.5 58.8
Absolute stored amount (in megaliters) 494 589 191 843 190 300 279 954 450 429 646 137
% of total storage capacity 55.1 21.4 21.2 31.2 50.1 71.9

2015-2016

After abundant rainfall in 2013 and 2014, Cape Town began a three-year drought period in 2015. It was intensified by large-scale weather situations such as El Nino and global climate change . The amount of water in the city's reservoirs fell within one year from 71.9% to 50.1% (2015). From January 2016, consumption caps were lowered to level 2, and in November 2016 the tightening of the caps on level 3 came into force.

Heavy rains and floods in other parts of South Africa ended the drought in Cape Town in August 2016, while the Western Cape was still affected.

2017

From February 2017, the upper consumption limits were lowered to Level 3B.

In May 2017, the drought was declared the worst in city of the century history. The dams contained less than 10% of their total storage capacity. In June 2017, the upper consumption limit was further reduced to level 4, which stipulated a maximum consumption of 100 liters per person per day.

The storm that occurred in Cape Town in June 2017 did not end the drought despite the rainfall of 50 mm of rain per square meter. The lowest total precipitation since 1933 was recorded in 2017.

The map shows Cape Town's main reservoirs and dams

Due to the persistent drought, the consumption caps were further reduced. Level 4B came into effect in July and Level 5 on September 3. This meant that water consumption for non-essential uses such as garden irrigation was prohibited. In addition, the use of gray water , u. a. arranged for flushing the toilet. The total daily water consumption should decrease to 500 million liters per day, which stipulates a consumption of 87 liters per day per person.

In October 2017 it was speculated that Cape Town still had water reserves for five months. That same month, the city released an emergency plan that would go into effect if the water crisis worsened. The plan was in different phases:

Phase 1

A lower water pressure in the pipes results in less water being drawn off. The supply was temporarily shut off and the amount of water withdrawn was rationed. Phase 1 was implemented immediately in some quarters due to limited delivery quantities.

Phase 2

Extensive cessation of water supplies and establishment of central water supply points.

Phase 3

The city has no water from the Western Cape's supply system. After a short time, the Cape Town water system would collapse.

In mid-October 2017, the water desalination companies criticized the city for concluding the contracts with too much bureaucratic effort and a total volume that was far too low. There is the impression that the seriousness of the situation is not recognized. On October 26, the city announced that the city chief executive would be given special emergency rights related to the drought to expedite the decision-making process.

2018

The storage space of Theewaterskloof Dam shrunk to approximately 12% of the original storage capacity on February 12, 2018

On January 24, 2018, the Cabinet of the Western Cape announced that it was the responsibility of the state government of South Africa to finance the expansion of Cape Town's water system, since "the timely and quantitative provision of water is the responsibility of the country". In addition, the provincial cabinet announced that it was preparing deployment plans for the South African police to ensure the distribution of water after zero hour.

In mid-January 2018, Cape Town's mayor Patricia de Lille announced that the city would be forced to turn off the municipal water supply if circumstances do not change. As soon as the filling level of all dams falls below 13.5%, "Zero hour" would be proclaimed and level 7 would come into effect. As a result, the municipal water supply would largely be cut off and the residents would have to collect their water rations of 25 liters per day at 149 central points in the city. Cape Town's economic situation would deteriorate as people would have to worry about getting their water rations instead of going to work. The water supply in the inner city, the informal settlements, whose water distribution is organized from central points, and important facilities such as hospitals would continue to be supplied. When this plan was presented, it was assumed that "zero hour" would be reached on April 22, 2018. It was assumed that the consumption rate remains constant between the fortnightly measurement periods and that the amount of water in the dams and the amount of rain and inflow do not change.

Steenbras dam in the Hottentots-Holland mountains

In February 2018, the Groenland Water Consumers Association (an association of farmers in Elgin, Grabouw and Cape Town) poured ten billion liters of water into the Steenbras Dam.

Cape Town's largest water reservoir, Theewaterskloof, was at 11% of its storage capacity in March 2018

Thanks to reduced water consumption by households, the daily amount withdrawn fell to 450 million liters on March 12, 2018 and well below the upper limit of Level 6Bm, which provided for 511 million liters per day. In addition, water consumption in agriculture also fell sharply. Together with the additional capacities of the Groenland water users association , the occurrence of the "zero hour" could be postponed to August 2018 and then indefinitely.

The severe drought

University of Cape Town weather research data from 2015 to 2017 was the driest three-year period since 1933, and 2017 was the driest year on record. It was calculated using meteorological models that a similarly severe drought occurs statistically once every 311 years. A modeling by Aurecon showed that such a severe drought would happen once in 400 years.

City parks and golf courses were no longer watered. In public toilets, visitors were encouraged to only flush “when it was absolutely necessary”. Plastic and paper cups were used in cafes to reduce the number of dishes to wash up. Analysts estimated that the water crisis had "cost 300,000 jobs in agriculture, tens of thousands in the service, tourism and catering sectors."

Effects

A poster from the government of the Western Cape, calling on citizens to save water in view of the water shortage in 2017
Poster on the inside of a public toilet in Cape Town 2018
Cape Town residents volunteering to line up in Newlands Spring to collect spring water in early 2018. These images circulated in the media and it was misleading to suggest that water shutdowns had occurred due to the drought.

In response to water scarcity, agriculture reduced its water use by 50 percent, resulting in the loss of 37,000 jobs in the industry. This meant that 50,000 people fell below the poverty line, on the one hand because of job losses and on the other hand because of the inflation caused by the rise in food prices. By February 2018, the agricultural sector was due to the scarcity of water losses of 14 billion Rand (1.17 billion US dollars ).

In office buildings and many public places in Cape Town, rainwater was used in the toilet cisterns instead of fresh water. Users were asked not to flush if there was only urine in the toilet and to use a disinfectant spray instead. Otherwise it should only be rinsed with rain or gray water. Furthermore, citizens should clean their hands with the disinfectants provided free of charge in office and public buildings.

The city called on residents to buy water supplies. However, these were sold out quickly and it was not clear when new deliveries would come. Local residents stood in line for hours at natural springs to fill their containers with fresh water.

Population health

At times, water consumption in Cape Town was limited to 50 liters per person per day. For example, toilets should be flushed less often and not with drinking water. In addition, less water should be used for showers. Some health experts have sounded the alarm that poorer hygiene could transmit more germs and lead to disease.

Inadequate access to safe sanitation, for example, is the leading cause of diarrheal disease, which kills 2.2 million people each year, most of them children under five. With a population of 3.81 million and a population density of 1,530 inhabitants per square kilometer, diseases such as cholera , listeriosis and the like could spread very quickly if there is no adequate sanitation. This is especially a danger for the poorer parts of Cape Town. Without fresh drinking water, the health of the population continues to deteriorate as pathogens are spread more widely via polluted water.

Experts warned that diseases that spread through contaminated water, such as cholera, hepatitis A and typhoid, will spread faster once the water tanks are also contaminated by local residents.

In addition, the water crisis in the health sector is having a negative impact due to the absent employees due to water procurement.

Health risk for special occupational groups

Emergency showers and eye wash stations are part of the basic workplace equipment in some areas. For example in some laboratories and factories. A water supply must be guaranteed for these emergencies. It is stipulated that emergency showers must be able to run 75 liters per minute for at least 15 minutes. This would correspond to a water ration that should actually last for three weeks. If the emergency rooms stop working, the health of workers who work with chemicals would be at risk.

The risk of fire also increases as the environment and infrastructure dry up. This is particularly relevant for industrial areas and warehouses, as fires can spread faster here. Fire suppression systems (sprinkler systems) could also fail due to the lower water pressure in some areas.

Particularly affected sections of the population

Children are one of the population groups most affected by the health risk posed by the water crisis. There is a high demand for water for the nutrition and hygiene of children. If schools in the Western Cape had no water, 1.1 million children would be affected.

Effects on the economy

Water is essential for the economy on the one hand for the water supply of employees and customers and on the other hand because of the water required for the manufacture of products. Depending on how much water was needed in which area, the water crisis hit different sectors at different times and with different degrees of severity. The economy's response to the water crisis has depended on a number of factors including government regulation, management, and liquidity. There were a total of three distinct phases during which the economic response intensified.

  • Phase 1: 2016 to the beginning of 2017. In the past the water price for the economy was relatively low, too low to offer an incentive for water efficiency or savings. Even companies with very high water consumption saw no incentive to invest in water management.
  • Phase 2: May 2017 to January 2018 The water prices for the economy have been increased again by the municipality since 2015 by 35% in December 2016. However, this increase has not yet led to investments in water efficiency. As of May 2018, the drought was declared a disaster and more and more companies began to take measures to save water, improve efficiency and find alternatives for consumption.
  • Phase 3: January to May 2018 On February 1, the prices were further increased according to Level 6B. That was equivalent to a price increase of 104% compared to 2015. This price increase, as well as regular warnings from the city as to when the zero hour would arrive, led some companies to make large investments in water efficiency and seek alternative water supply routes.

Agriculture

Agriculture is the main consumer of water. The wine industry around Cape Town on the one hand attracts tourists and on the other hand provides 300,000 jobs. The wineries attracted 1.5 million tourists in 2017, over the same period they were responsible for a third of all water consumption. Depending on the region, a vineyard needs 250 to 610 mm of precipitation per square meter in order to grow the wine. South Africa's wine plantations received only half as much rainfall in 2017 compared to “normal” years. This resulted in a smaller harvest. In the industry, the return on investment was only 1%, although some of the world's most popular wines are produced there. The 2018 harvest will likely be 20% less. In 2017, 1.4 million tons of grapes were harvested. Wine sales would decrease by 9%.

Hydrological poverty

Hydrological poverty is a particularly severe form of poverty, as the people affected cannot buy food or water and thus have no chance of improving their socio-economic status. It has been estimated that the water crisis will cut 300,000 jobs in agriculture and tens of thousands more in the service, tourism and hospitality sectors. It was illegal to sell water from rivers and wells in Cape Town, but some still benefit from the transportation and labor that it creates. For example, a resident who had hoarded water sold it for $ 350 a barrel (159 liters) during the water crisis. This makes it clear that it would be impossible for poor citizens to obtain fresh drinking water when the municipal water supply is switched off. People who use too much water face fines ranging from R500 to R3,000 ($ 41-248). An increase in hydrological poverty from further reductions in water resources could increase the death rate in Cape Town by 25 to 33 percent.

Political responsibility

The political responsibility for the water supply is divided between the local, provincial and state governments. Cape Town and the Western Cape are governed by the Democratic Alliance (DA Democratic Alliance). This makes them the only regions that are not governed by the African National Congress (ANC African National Congress). He has been in government in South Africa since 1994. The 1998 Water Act established the national government as a “state trustee” and gave it responsibility for a “safe, usable, developed, managed and controlled sustainable and fair water supply”. The law also states that “the national government through its minister has the right to regulate the use and consumption of water.” This led to tension between the Western Cape and Cape Town, which are governed by the DA, and the ANC national government, because both parties accused each other of being to blame for the water crisis.

The party leader of the DA, Mmusi Maimane, has taken the lead role in relation to public announcements on the water crisis, although he does not officially hold an office in the government. Because of this, criticism has been expressed that the situation is becoming more complicated because the party and government are not clearly separated.

Positive impact

The water crisis led to more investment in research and development of alternative water systems. This could mean that such water crises for other cities could be prevented in the future. Crises like the one in Cape Town will occur more and more frequently in the face of climate change and urbanization.

The water crisis also made it clear how much savings potential can be mobilized by changing behavior in the use of water.

Reactions to the water crisis

Water supply

New sources of municipal water supply

Cape Town is currently working on using seawater desalination to extract drinking water from the ocean. In addition, new wells are being built to pump groundwater. Work is also underway to reuse wastewater as drinking water. By January 2018, these projects were half finished. There was also a large information and education campaign for the population about water saving measures. As a result, water consumption was halved in 2018 compared to 2015.

Economic response

New water market in Cape Town

In the 1998 National Water Act, only surface water, mainly rivers, was considered as water resources without considering alternative resources. With decreasing rainfall and increasing demand at the same time, alternative water resources must not be ignored. The water crisis led the private sector to invest. For example, water was sold in single-use plastic containers, which resulted in plastic pollution. More sustainable alternatives would be, for example, the use of filtration systems, reusable water containers and innovative water extraction technologies. Private firms that took on a leading role included:

  • Air water
  • Bluewater
  • I-drop water
  • Oasis Water - Three liters of wastewater per liter purified (three liters of wastewater per liter of drinking water)

Although these solutions are easy to acquire, regulations do not make it easy for businesses and individuals to disconnect from the municipal water supply network. Regulations and laws would have to be adapted to make it easier for the private sector to contribute to solving the water problem.

These solutions are costly and will only be available to rich businesses and wealthy citizens. The problem of water supply in times of crisis persists for poor households. If these solutions are used in critical water shortages, the city's revenues would decrease due to reduced sales of water.

Water demand

Technical support

Smart water management devices are devices that provide real-time data on water consumption and water flows in the supply system. The water supply can be optimized by merging the data and evaluating it. In addition, damage in pipes can be detected and repaired at an early stage, so that there is less water loss.

They also give users the opportunity to become more aware of their water consumption and to see exactly which activities lead to which water consumption and how this can be reduced.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Course of the water storage of the Big Six WCWSS dams. Retrieved July 20, 2018 .
  2. ^ Zaheer Cassim: Cape Town could be the first major city in the world to run out of water . In: USA Today . 19th January 2018.
  3. ↑ Richard Poplak: What's Actually Behind Cape Town's Water Crisis . In: The Atlantic . February 15, 2018. Retrieved February 22, 2018.
  4. ^ Geoffrey York: Cape Town residents become 'guinea pigs for the world' with a water conservation campaign . In: The Globe and Mail . March 8, 2018.
  5. ↑ JANINE MYBURGH: Chamber delighted by Day-Zero's death . June 29, 2018. Archived from the original on July 6, 2018. Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved June 29, 2018. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.capemessenger.co.za
  6. ↑ Western Cape edges closer to an end to the drought as dam levels continue to rise . News24. July 12, 2018.
  7. ↑ Dam Levels . July 19, 2018. Archived from the original on July 16, 2019. Retrieved on July 19, 2018.
  8. ^ Adam Welz: Awaiting Day Zero: Cape Town Faces an Uncertain Water Future . Yale Environment 360. March 1, 2018.
  9. ↑ Gopolang Makou: Do Formal Residents Use 65% of Cape Town's Water? . Africa Check. August 21, 2017.
  10. ^ Barry Streek: Cape Town will run out of water in 17 years . In: Cape Times , April 26, 1990. “Water supplies for the Cape Town area are expected to dry up in 17 years time, the Water Research Commission (WRC) disclosed yesterday. "It is estimated that known fresh water supplies for the Cape Town metropolitan area will be fully committed by the year 2007," it said in its annual report tabled in Parliament yesterday. "Thereafter the reclamation of purified sewage effluent to augment supplies is a distinct possibility". " 
  11. ↑ Zolile Basholo: Overview of Water Demand Management Initiatives: A City of Cape Town Approach . City of Cape Town. 4th February 2016.
  12. ^ Willem Steenkamp: 'We needed to build more dams a decade ago' . January 1, 2005.
  13. ↑ Cape Town's water supply boosted . City of Cape Town. March 17, 2009. Archived from the original on March 27, 2009.
  14. ↑ Western Cape Water Reconciliation Strategy Newsletter 5 . Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. March 2009.
  15. ^ William Saunderson-Meyer: Commentary: In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water (en-US) . In: US . Retrieved March 30, 2018. 
  16. ↑ Facts are few, opinions plenty… on drought severity again ( en-US ). Retrieved March 30, 2018.
  17. ↑ Randal Jackson: Global Climate Change: Effects . In: Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet . Retrieved March 30, 2018. 
  18. ↑ City of Cape Town: Water Dashboard . City of Cape Town. July 16, 2018. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
  19. ↑ City of Cape Town: Water Dashboard . City of Cape Town. May 14, 2018. Retrieved May 17, 2018.
  20. ↑ Frequently asked questions about South Africa's drought ( English ) Africa Check. February 3, 2016. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
  21. ↑ Trevor Bohatch: What's causing Cape Town's water crisis? ( English ) Ground Up. May 16, 2017. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
  22. ↑ Muthoni Masinde: Southern Africa faces floods after drought . August 18, 2016. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
  23. ^ Derek Van Dam: Cape Town contends with worst drought in over a century . CNN . Retrieved June 1, 2017.
  24. ↑ Jenna Etheridge: City of Cape Town approves Level 4 water restrictions . May 31, 2017.
  25. ↑ Cape storm isn't a quick fix for drought, warns City of Cape Town . In: News24 . Retrieved June 15, 2017. 
  26. ↑ Level 5 water restrictions implemented in Cape Town . In: News24 . Retrieved September 4, 2017. 
  27. ↑ DIANA NEILLE, MARELISE VAN DER MERWE & LEILA DOUGAN: Cape Of Storms To Come ( en-US ). Retrieved November 3, 2017.
  28. ↑ Patricia De Lille: Op-Ed: The City of Cape Town's Critical Water Shortages Disaster Plan | Daily Maverick ( en ) City of Cape Town. October 4, 2017. Retrieved November 3, 2017.
  29. ↑ Michael Morris: City of Cape Town's water 'bungle' | Weekend Argus (en) . In: Weekend Argus , October 14, 2017. Retrieved November 3, 2017. 
  30. ↑ News24: Cape Town city manager given special powers to deal with water crisis - NEWS & ANALYSIS ( en ) October 26, 2017. Accessed December 1, 2017.
  31. ↑ Government must refund Cape Town for cost of managing the water crisis ( en-ZA ) on January 24, 2018. Accessed January 26, 2018th
  32. ^ Aletta Harrison, Alet Janse van Rensburg: JP Smith answers Day Zero questions: 'It's going to be really unpleasant' . News24. January 26, 2018.
  33. ↑ Borehole rules? Can you use sea water to flush? - The City of Cape Town answers your questions . GroundUp. January 30, 2018.
  34. ↑ 'I Knew We Were in Trouble.' What It's Like to Live Through Cape Town's Massive Water Crisis . Retrieved March 30, 2018.
  35. ^ Aryn Baker: Cape Town Is 90 Days Away From Running Out of Water . In: Time , January 15, 2018. Retrieved January 19, 2018. 
  36. ↑ Liezl Thom: Drought-stricken Cape Town, South Africa, Could run out of water by April's 'day zero' . In: ABC News , January 17, 2018. Retrieved January 19, 2018. 
  37. ↑ Kevin Brandt: Day Zero Brought Forward, CT Officials Prepare for Worst . 23rd January 2018.
  38. ^ Ian Neilson: Statement by the City's Executive Mayor, Alderman Ian Neilson: Defeating Day Zero is in sight if we sustain our water-saving efforts , City of Cape Town. 20th February 2018. 
  39. ↑ WATCH: Cape Town gets 10bn liters of water ( en ) February 6, 2018. Accessed February 8, 2018.
  40. ↑ Lauren Said-Moorhouse: Cape Town cuts water use limit by nearly half . In: CNN . Retrieved February 3, 2018. 
  41. ↑ Lauren Said-Moorhouse, CNN: Cape Town 'Day Zero' delayed as agricultural water use drops . In: CNN . Retrieved February 5, 2018. 
  42. ↑ #DayZero pushed back to June, as drought declared a national disaster . News24. February 13, 2018.
  43. ^ South Africa: Day Zero pushed back to June . Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  44. ↑ Nidha Narrandes: Cape Town water usage lower than ever . Cape Town etc. March 14, 2018.
  45. ↑ Piotr Wolski: How severe is Cape Town's drought? A detailed look at the data . News24. 23rd January 2018.
  46. ↑ Dave Gale: Just how severe is the current drought the City of Cape Town is experiencing? . Water Shedding Western Cape. 23rd January 2018.
  47. ↑ Bekezela Phakathi: Farmers lose R14bn as Cape drought bites (en-US) . In: Business Day , February 5, 2018. Retrieved February 7, 2018. 
  48. ^ Tom Head: Cape Town water crisis: With drought, comes the horror of disease (en-US) . In: The South African , October 10, 2017. Retrieved March 30, 2018. 
  49. ↑ a b Cape Town water crisis: South African wine vineyard harvest will be hit by drought - Quartz ( en-US ) January 26, 2018. Retrieved March 30, 2018.
  50. ↑ Day Zero: The impact of Cape Town's water shortage on public health | Public Health (en-US) . In: Public Health , February 5, 2018. Retrieved March 30, 2018. 
  51. ^ Western Cape Water Crisis: How resilient is your organization in the face of the current water crisis? . December 2012. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
  52. ↑ Vulnerable fear Cape Town's water shut-off (en) . In: News24 . Retrieved March 30, 2018. 
  53. ↑ Water crisis: Day Zero could affect a million children ( en ). Retrieved March 30, 2018.
  54. ↑ Raymond Siebrits: GreenCape Water Sector Market Intelligence Report 2018. (PDF) September 17, 2017, accessed on July 23, 2018 (English).
  55. ↑ 49 percent of Cape Town business says drought is becoming a threat to their survival . ( cbn.co.za [accessed July 23, 2018]).
  56. ↑ Jenna Etheridge: De Lille warns 'Day Zero' for Cape Town's municipal water supply is March 2018 . 4th October 2018.
  57. ↑ Jane Reddick: GreenCape Water Sector Market Intelligence Report 2018. (PDF) Retrieved July 18, 2018 (English).
  58. ^ William Saunderson-Meyer: Commentary: In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water (en-US) . In: US , February 5, 2018. Retrieved March 30, 2018. 
  59. ^ Lester R. Brown: Population Growth Sentencing Millions to Hydrological Poverty . Earth Policy Institute. June 21, 2000. Retrieved March 30, 2018.
  60. ^ M Pieterse: Politics Muddle Cape Town's Water Crisis . Retrieved March 14, 2018.
  61. ^ M Pieterse: Cape Town is almost at the feared 'Day Zero' ( en-GB ) In: The Independent . March 2, 2018. Retrieved March 14, 2018.
  62. ^ Why Cape Town Is Running Out of Water, and Who's Next , National Geographic. March 5, 2018. Retrieved March 30, 2018. 
  63. ↑ Businesses in W Cape plan to get off water grid - SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. (en-US) . In: SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. , National Geographic, July 12, 2018. Retrieved March 30, 2018. 
  64. ↑ Green Cape: Water Installation Guidelines .