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{{Infobox Military Conflict
[[Image:Junge Hamer in Südäthiopien.jpg|thumb|A woman wearing traditional clothing in Southern [[Ethiopia]]. Many societies have no cultural proscriptions on females going bare-breasted.]]
|conflict=Battle of Bajaur
[[Image:Topless Barcelona.jpg|thumb|Women sunbathing topless on a beach in [[Barcelona]], [[Spain]].]]
|partof=[[Mughal Empire|Mughal conquests]]
|image=
|caption=
|date= [[1519]]
|place=[[Bajaur]], [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas|FATA]], [[Pakistan]]
|result=Decisive [[Mughal]] victory
|territory=[[Bajaur]] annexed by [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]]</br> Other [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas|FATA]] Tribes Submit.
|combatant1=[[Image:Flag of the Mughal Empire.svg|border|22px]] [[Mughal Empire]]</br>[[Dilazak|Dilazak Pathans]]
|combatant2=[[Bajaur|Bajaur Sultanate]]</br> of Jahangiri dynasty</br>[[Yusufzai]] &</br>Other [[Pathan]]s
|commander1=[[Babur|Zahir ud-Din Muhammad Babur]]
|commander2='''Mir Haider Ali Gabri'''
|strength1=?
|strength2=?
|casualties1=Low
|casualties2=High
}}


'''Topfreedom''' is a [[social movement]] seeking the recognition of a right of women and girls to be [[toplessness|topfree]] in public where men and boys have that right. The topfreedom movement objects to the risqué connotations of the term "[[topless]]" and usually prefers the term "topfree." Examples of [[public space]]s at which topfreedom might be exercised include [[beach]]es, [[swimming pool]]s and [[park]]s, although the principles of the movement admit of no restriction in location. The reasons include keeping nursing mothers from having to hide for [[breastfeeding]], [[sun tanning]], comfort, and [[gender equality]].
[[Toplessness]] in public by women is illegal in many states of the [[United States]]<ref>[http://www.feministezine.com/feminist/toplessness004.html Topfreedom: The Fundamental Right of Women<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Some states do not have laws against toplessness, but permit local bodies (such as cities) to make laws for their areas. In the United States, where resistance to toplessness of women is greater than in mainland [[Europe]] or [[Australia]], a small '''topfree equality''' movement has grown. The term "topfree" is used as an alternative to "topless", which may carry negative connotations. Some women prefer the term "shirtfree rights".


In February [[2005]] in [[California]], attorney Liana Johnsson contended that under [[Megan's Law]], women convicted of [[indecent exposure]] (for [[breastfeeding]] or [[sun tanning|sunbathing]]) could find themselves listed as [[sex offender]]s alongside [[rape|rapists]] and [[Sexual abuse#Child sexual abuse|child molesters]]. In 1991 in [[Canada]], Gwen Jacob was arrested for walking down a street in [[Guelph, Ontario]] while topless. She was acquitted in 1996 by the highest court in [[Ontario]]. A similar case had arisen for the Rochester Topfree Seven, charged in 1986 in [[Rochester, New York]] but acquitted in 1992.
From [[1515]]-[[1519]], [[Babur|Zahir ud-Din Muhammad Babur]] enjoyed a relatively calm period when he returned to [[Kabul]] in the aftermath of his defeat at the [[Battle of Ghazdewan]] and loss of [[Transoxiana]] to the [[Uzbeks]]<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. But all that came to an end, when he had troubles with the [[Pathan]]s who are various mountain tribes on either side of the current [[Pakistan]]-[[Afghanistan]] border, which had hitherto yielded an imperfect obedience or none to the throne of [[Kabul]]<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. The [[Pathan]]s have never been subdued or conquered per se but only restrained. Baburs’ predecessors like [[Alexander the great]], [[Mahmud Ghazni]], [[Muhammad Ghori]], [[Genghis Khan]] and [[Timur|Timur Lane]] all either managed to only restrain the Pathans for a while or did not bother them at all in order to avoid a bloody and needless confrontation<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. But Babur had no choice as he had to confront the people in his immediate territory<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>.


== Battle ==
==Cultural arguments==
[[Image:Namibie Himba 0716a.jpg|thumb|left|Namibian young woman in traditional clothes]]
Eventually he would come to battle in [[Bajaur]] in present day FATA or [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas]], an autonomous territory in present day [[Pakistan]] next to the [[Afghanistan]] border<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. Thirty years before Babur’s invasion of Bajaur, the [[Yusufzai]] had settled in the lower parts of that tract expelling the [[Dilazak]]s the former inhabitants<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. This territory which lies at the southern roots of the [[Hindu Kush]] range and was highly cultivated, had in older times been held by the [[Sultan]]s of [[Swat]] and [[Bajaur]] a race of princes whose authority appears at one time to have been very extensive especially among the rich cultivated valleys of that hill country<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. The dominions of the [[Sultan]] of [[Swat]] at one period had even extended to both sides of the [[Sind]]<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. The [[Yusufzai]] had succeeded in expelling the [[Dilazak]]s from part of the [[Swat]] territory and had also encroached upon the Sultan so that he had been compelled to retire into Upper Swat<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. The Sultan of Bajaur, '''Mir Haider Ali Gabri''' of the Jahangiri Dynasty was still independent<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. [[Babur]] when he entered the country was attended by several [[Dilazak]] chiefs who served him as guides and directed his vengeance against their deadly enemies the [[Yusufzai]]<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. He first marched against the strong '''Fort Gabar''' of Bajaur and the Sultan refusing to submit he attacked it with engines of war and with matchlocks which were quite new to the garrison<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. The alarm which these produced as soon as their effects were experienced was employed to cover an escalade that proved successful<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. The whole male inhabitants 3000 in number including their chiefs were cruelly put to the sword and a pillar erected of their heads<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. The women were taken as slaves. At this time the Sultan of Swat and the [[Yusufzai]]s sent their envoys to appease [[Babur]]<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. After repeated hostilities they came to a final truce and agreement which was that they should make no inroads into [[Swat]] above Anuha; the amount of contribution which they had been accustomed to levy higher up being allowed as a deduction in the rolls of their revenue collections and that the [[Pathan]]s who cultivated lands in [[Bajaur]] and [[Swat]] should pay six thousand loads about 38000 cwts of grain to the government<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>.


Western culture generally tends to oppose public female toplessness because of the idea that females' breasts are sexual organs, and thus [[decency|indecent]]. In contrast, the male chest is not commonly considered to be sexual.
== Aftermath ==
Part of the peace treaty included Babur’s marriage to '''Bibi Mubarka''', daughter of '''Malik Shah Mansoor''' , one of the chiefs of the [[Yusufzai]]<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>. It may be imagined that it was no easy task to restrain tribes which like those around Kabul had for ages been accustomed freely to indulge in robbery and insubordination of every kind and it should seem that hardly a year passed in which [[Babur]] did not make inroads into the country of some one or other of them to chastise their licentiousness to protect his more peaceable subjects and sometimes perhaps for the less laudable object of plundering them of their wealth or of reducing them to subjection<ref>A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854; Public Domain</ref>.


Biologically there is no particular connection between mammary glands and copulation, but some cultures have regarded the exhibition of breasts as sexually arousing (others have also so regarded the exhibition of the chests of men). Some zoologists (notably [[Desmond Morris]]) believe that through human evolution, female breasts have acquired secondary sexual characteristics as a counterpart of the buttocks in other primates.<ref name=nakedape>{{cite book|author=Morris, Desmond | title=The Naked Ape : A Zoologist's Study of the Human Animal|publisher=Dell|date=1999|isbn=0-385-33430-3|}} </ref> For more information, see [[breast]].
== References ==

''A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun'' By William Erskine;Published by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854 [http://books.google.com/books?id=V2QBAAAAQAAJ]
Some courts in North America have ruled that mammary glands are nurturing organs, not sexual organs, a relevant distinction in light of laws in certain jurisdictions that specifically restrict the public display of sexual organs.
== Notes ==

==Topfree in North America==
Some places in North America have topfree equality by law, although whether such equality is practiced varies. These include:
*Some provinces of [[Canada]] including
**[[British Columbia]]
**[[Manitoba]]
**[[Ontario]]<ref name="QueenvsJacobs">Province of Ontario Court of Appeal. Judgment C12668, The Queen vs. Gwen Jacob (1996)</ref> (where equality has been tested and upheld several times)

*Some states of the [[United States]], including
**[[California]] coast, such as [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]]
**[[Hawaii]] {{Fact|date=March 2008}}
**[[Maine]] (ex.<ref>[http://www.stater.kent.edu/stories_old/98fall/110698/n2a.html http://www.stater.kent.edu/stories_old/98fall/110698/n2a.html] ''Stater.kent.edu'' </ref><ref>[http://www.seacoastonline.com/2002news/1_31odd.htm http://www.seacoastonline.com/2002news/1_31odd.htm] ''Seacoastonline.com'' </ref>)
**[[New York]]{{Fact|date=June 2008}} The People v. Ramona Santorelli and Mary Lou Schloss, No. 115 COURT OF APPEALS OF NEW YORK July 7, 1992
**[[Ohio]]{{Fact|date=June 2008}} State v. Jetter (1991), 74 Ohio App. 3d. 535, 599 N.E. 2d 733
**[[Texas]]{{Fact|date=June 2008}}

*Some cities and localities of the [[United States]], including
**[[Boulder, Colorado]]
**[[Eugene, Oregon]]
***[[Oregon Country Fair]]
**[[South Beach]], [[Miami Beach, Florida]]
**[[Key West, Florida]]
***[[Fantasy Fest]]
**[[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]
***[[Mardis Gras]]
**[[Washington, D.C.]]
**[[Columbus, OH]]
Even where topfree is legal, police might still arrest those practicing it for [[disorderly conduct]] or similar charges.

==Topfree in other places==
[[Image:174363504 c5794acec0 o.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bodypainting|Bodypainted]] sports fans in Germany.]]
In some European countries and [[Australia]], it is well-established that females may go topfree at places such as beaches, parks, and outdoor swimming pools. That might be by law (''permitted'') or might be by common consent, with the law simply not being applied (''tolerated''). In other areas with more conservative social norms, women are prohibited from being topfree in any public place.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

A protest movement called "Bara Bröst" appeared in Sweden in September 2007 to promote women's right to be topless in places where men could also be topless. Several events were staged in public swimbaths in September and October.<ref>[http://www.metro.co.uk/weird/article.html?in_article_id=76183&in_page_id=2 Metro.co.uk, November 19, 2007] ''Swedes fight for topless rights'' </ref> While toplessness is not illegal, several private or public establishments in Sweden have a [[dress code]] which demand that everyone wear tops: topless individuals can be denied access or thrown out.

==Topfree Equal Rights Association (TERA)==
The '''Topfree Equal Rights Association (TERA)'''<ref>[http://www.tera.ca http://www.tera.ca] ''Tera.ca'' </ref> is a Canadian organization for helping women who have legal troubles exercising their rights to go 'topfree' where men are able to. Their Web site states that they serve both Canada and the United States.

The organization also aims to inform and educate the public about topfreedom. They campaign to change laws against topfreedom which exist in most North American [[jurisdiction]]s, which laws they see as [[sexism|sex discrimination]] and inhibiting to breastfeeding.

==See also==
*[[Barechested]]
*[[Gender equality]]
*[[Monokini]]
*[[National Cleavage Day]]
*[[Naturism]]
*[[Nudity]]
*[[Public nudity]]
*[[Sexism]]
*[[Taboo]]
*[[Toplessness]]

===Organizations===
*[[Naturist Action Committee]] (NAC)
*[[Topfree equality#Topfree Equal Rights Association .28TERA.29|Topfree Equal Rights Association]] (TERA)
*[[Clothes free organizations]]
*[[World Naked Bike Ride]]

===People===
*Judy E. Williams: NAC board member, chief advisor of TERA, chair of Wreck Beach Preservation Society (WBPS) in Vancouver, BC
*Gwen Jacob: test case for topfreedom who won in Ontario, Canada.<ref name="QueenvsJacobs"/>
*Linda Meyer: test case for topfreedom for British Columbia. On [[June 8]], [[2000]], she won in court against Maple Ridge, BC. She had been arrested at the District of Maple Ridge's indoor public swimming pool. That was after she had provoked arrests for many years, and had gone to jail, in order to win in court and thereby stop official harassment for her topfree public activities.
*Paul Rapoport: topfree activist, writer, editor of ''Going Natural'', a publication of FCN.
*[[Sue Richards (artist)|Sue Richards]]: Publisher of the topfree, breast health calendar Breast of Canada.
*Morley Schloss: NAC board member, topfree activist.
*[[Nikki Craft]]: [[feminist]], past [[shirtfree]] rights activist, now disaffiliated from the movement.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Battles involving the Mughal Empire]]
==External links==
*[http://www.topfreeaction.com/ Topfree Action.]
*[http://gotopless.org National Gotopless Day] Saturday Aug 23rd 2008 (affiliated with [[Raëlism]])
*[http://www.savecalifornia.com/getpluggedin/latimes_12205.php "Woman Promotes the Right to Go Topless"] from ''Los Angeles Times'', January 2005.
<!-- above is a working link version of the same article commented out here
*[http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-topless22jan22,0,3775804.story?coll=la-home-local 2005 Legal Battle in California (broken link).]
-->
*[http://www.tera.ca/ Topfree Equal Rights Association.]
*[http://www.007b.com/topfreedom.php What is topfreedom? article.]
*[http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/jdb%2Dtxt/sc/00/09/s00%2D0902.htm Maple Ridge vs. Meyer 2000 BCSC 902.]
*[http://topfreedom.org/ Topfreedom.org is A place to share your Travel experiences about topfreedom.]
*[http://www.contra.org/lifestyles/naturist/topfree7.html New York State Court of Appeals Decision overturning the convictions of Rochester, NY's "Topfree 7".]
*[http://barabrost.blogg.se/ "Bara Bröst" (english: Only/Bare Breast), Swedish Network to promote womens right to be topless] ''(In Swedish and English)''.

{{nudity}}

[[Category:Breast]]
[[Category:Civil disobedience]]
[[Category:Nudity]]
[[Category:Sexism]]
[[Category:Social movements]]
[[Category:Protest tactics]]

[[sv:Topfreedom]]
[[ca:Topfree]]
[[it:Topfree]]

Revision as of 05:34, 13 October 2008

A woman wearing traditional clothing in Southern Ethiopia. Many societies have no cultural proscriptions on females going bare-breasted.
Women sunbathing topless on a beach in Barcelona, Spain.

Topfreedom is a social movement seeking the recognition of a right of women and girls to be topfree in public where men and boys have that right. The topfreedom movement objects to the risqué connotations of the term "topless" and usually prefers the term "topfree." Examples of public spaces at which topfreedom might be exercised include beaches, swimming pools and parks, although the principles of the movement admit of no restriction in location. The reasons include keeping nursing mothers from having to hide for breastfeeding, sun tanning, comfort, and gender equality.

Toplessness in public by women is illegal in many states of the United States[1]. Some states do not have laws against toplessness, but permit local bodies (such as cities) to make laws for their areas. In the United States, where resistance to toplessness of women is greater than in mainland Europe or Australia, a small topfree equality movement has grown. The term "topfree" is used as an alternative to "topless", which may carry negative connotations. Some women prefer the term "shirtfree rights".

In February 2005 in California, attorney Liana Johnsson contended that under Megan's Law, women convicted of indecent exposure (for breastfeeding or sunbathing) could find themselves listed as sex offenders alongside rapists and child molesters. In 1991 in Canada, Gwen Jacob was arrested for walking down a street in Guelph, Ontario while topless. She was acquitted in 1996 by the highest court in Ontario. A similar case had arisen for the Rochester Topfree Seven, charged in 1986 in Rochester, New York but acquitted in 1992.

Cultural arguments

Namibian young woman in traditional clothes

Western culture generally tends to oppose public female toplessness because of the idea that females' breasts are sexual organs, and thus indecent. In contrast, the male chest is not commonly considered to be sexual.

Biologically there is no particular connection between mammary glands and copulation, but some cultures have regarded the exhibition of breasts as sexually arousing (others have also so regarded the exhibition of the chests of men). Some zoologists (notably Desmond Morris) believe that through human evolution, female breasts have acquired secondary sexual characteristics as a counterpart of the buttocks in other primates.[2] For more information, see breast.

Some courts in North America have ruled that mammary glands are nurturing organs, not sexual organs, a relevant distinction in light of laws in certain jurisdictions that specifically restrict the public display of sexual organs.

Topfree in North America

Some places in North America have topfree equality by law, although whether such equality is practiced varies. These include:

Even where topfree is legal, police might still arrest those practicing it for disorderly conduct or similar charges.

Topfree in other places

File:174363504 c5794acec0 o.jpg
Bodypainted sports fans in Germany.

In some European countries and Australia, it is well-established that females may go topfree at places such as beaches, parks, and outdoor swimming pools. That might be by law (permitted) or might be by common consent, with the law simply not being applied (tolerated). In other areas with more conservative social norms, women are prohibited from being topfree in any public place.[citation needed]

A protest movement called "Bara Bröst" appeared in Sweden in September 2007 to promote women's right to be topless in places where men could also be topless. Several events were staged in public swimbaths in September and October.[6] While toplessness is not illegal, several private or public establishments in Sweden have a dress code which demand that everyone wear tops: topless individuals can be denied access or thrown out.

Topfree Equal Rights Association (TERA)

The Topfree Equal Rights Association (TERA)[7] is a Canadian organization for helping women who have legal troubles exercising their rights to go 'topfree' where men are able to. Their Web site states that they serve both Canada and the United States.

The organization also aims to inform and educate the public about topfreedom. They campaign to change laws against topfreedom which exist in most North American jurisdictions, which laws they see as sex discrimination and inhibiting to breastfeeding.

See also

Organizations

People

  • Judy E. Williams: NAC board member, chief advisor of TERA, chair of Wreck Beach Preservation Society (WBPS) in Vancouver, BC
  • Gwen Jacob: test case for topfreedom who won in Ontario, Canada.[3]
  • Linda Meyer: test case for topfreedom for British Columbia. On June 8, 2000, she won in court against Maple Ridge, BC. She had been arrested at the District of Maple Ridge's indoor public swimming pool. That was after she had provoked arrests for many years, and had gone to jail, in order to win in court and thereby stop official harassment for her topfree public activities.
  • Paul Rapoport: topfree activist, writer, editor of Going Natural, a publication of FCN.
  • Sue Richards: Publisher of the topfree, breast health calendar Breast of Canada.
  • Morley Schloss: NAC board member, topfree activist.
  • Nikki Craft: feminist, past shirtfree rights activist, now disaffiliated from the movement.

References

  1. ^ Topfreedom: The Fundamental Right of Women
  2. ^ Morris, Desmond (1999). The Naked Ape : A Zoologist's Study of the Human Animal. Dell. ISBN 0-385-33430-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  3. ^ a b Province of Ontario Court of Appeal. Judgment C12668, The Queen vs. Gwen Jacob (1996)
  4. ^ http://www.stater.kent.edu/stories_old/98fall/110698/n2a.html Stater.kent.edu
  5. ^ http://www.seacoastonline.com/2002news/1_31odd.htm Seacoastonline.com
  6. ^ Metro.co.uk, November 19, 2007 Swedes fight for topless rights
  7. ^ http://www.tera.ca Tera.ca

External links

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