French Left and Kaaba: Difference between pages
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[[Image:Kaaba mirror edit jj.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Pilgrims circumambulating the Kaaba during the [[Hajj]]]] |
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{{Politics of France}} |
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[[Image:The Holy Kabbah in Makkah.jpg|thumb|200px|The Holy [[Kabbah]] at night in [[Makkah]], [[Saudi Arabia]].]] |
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The '''Left in France''' at the beginning of the [[France in the 20th century|20th century]] was represented by two main [[political parties]], the [[Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party]] and the [[SFIO]] (French Section of the Workers' International), created in 1905 as a merger of various [[Marxist]] parties. But in 1914, after the assassination of the leader of the SFIO, [[Jean Jaurès]], who had upheld an [[internationalist]] and [[anti-militarist]] line, the SFIO accepted to join the ''[[Union Sacrée]]'' national front. In the aftermaths of the 1917 [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] and the [[Spartacist League|Spartacist]] [[German Revolution|insurrection in Germany]], the French Left divided itself in [[reformist]]s and [[revolutionaries]] during the 1920 [[Tours Congress]], which saw the majority of the SFIO spin-out to form the [[SFIC]] (French Section of the [[Communist International]]). |
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The '''Kaaba''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|الكعبة}} {{ArabDIN|al-Kaʿbah}}; {{IPA2|'kɑʕbɑ}} or {{IPA2|'kæʕbæ}})<ref>Also known as ''{{ArabDIN|al-Kaʿbatu l-Mušarrafah}}'' ({{lang|ar|الكعبة المشرًّفة}} "The Noble Kaʿbah), ''{{ArabDIN|al-Baytu l-ʿAtīq}}'' ({{lang|ar|البيت العتيق}} "The Primordial House"), or ''{{ArabDIN|al-Baytu l-Ḥarām}}'' ({{lang|ar|البيت الحرام}} "The Sacred House")</ref> "Cube" is a [[cuboid]]al building in [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and is the [[Most holy place#Islam|most sacred site]] in [[Islam]].<ref name="eoi317">Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] IV p. 317</ref> The building is at least thousands of years old, and according to Islamic tradition, dates back to the time of [[Abraham]] (Ibrahim). It is towards the Kaaba which all Muslims around the world face during [[salat|prayer]], no matter where they are on Earth. |
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The building has a mosque built around it, the [[Masjid al-Haram|al-Masjid al-Haram]]. One of the [[Five Pillars of Islam]] is that every Muslim who is able to do so, must travel to Mecca at least once in their lifetime to perform the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage, which includes a series of rituals. Multiple parts of the Hajj require that the pilgrims walk several times around the Kaaba in a counter-clockwise direction. This circumnambulation, the [[Tawaf]], is also performed by pilgrims during the [[Umrah]] (lesser pilgrimage).<ref name="eoi317"/> However, the most dramatic times are during the Hajj, when two million pilgrims simultaneously gather to circle the building on the same day. |
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== Left and Right in France== |
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[[Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|right|300px|thumb|''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'' (1830) by [[Eugène Delacroix]] commemorates the [[July Revolution]] of 1830. The kid with the gun, at the right of the woman personifiying Liberty, who holds the Republican, [[French flag|tricolor flag]], would be [[Victor Hugo]]'s inspiration for [[Gavroche]] in ''[[Les Misérables]]'', who would die on the [[barricade]]s on June 1832.]] |
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{{Socialism sidebar}} |
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{{See|Politics of France}} |
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The distinction of [[left-right politics|left and right in politics]] itself found its roots in the 1789 [[French Revolution]]. Throughout the [[France in the 19th century|19th century]], the main dividing line between [[Politics of France|Left and Right in France]] concerned the [[Republic]] versus the [[Monarchy]]. On the right, the [[Legitimist]]s staunchly upheld [[counter-revolutionary]] views and rejected all inheritance of the French Revolution, while [[Orleanist]]s attempted to negotiate a [[constitutional monarchy]], effective after the 1830 [[July Revolution]]. The Republic itself, or, as it was called by [[Radicalism (historical)|Radical Republicans]], the Democratic and Social Republic (''la République démocratique et sociale''), was the objective of the French [[workers' movement]], and the [[lowest common denominator]] of the French Left. Thus, the [[June Days Uprising]] during the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] issued from the [[1848 Revolution (France)|1848 Revolution]] marked the frontier between Left and Right. |
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==Location and physical attributes == |
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Following [[Napoleon III]]'s [[French coup of 1851|1851 coup]] and the subsequent establishment of the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]], the Left was excluded from the political arena and focused on organization of the workers. In the meanwhile, [[Marxism]] started to rivalize with Radical Republicanism and "[[utopian socialism]]", as [[Karl Marx]] called earlier forms of [[Socialism]]. Progressively, Socialism would push Radical Republicanism more to the center (a phenomenon explaining ''[[sinistrisme]]''), although the Republicans' [[anti-clericalism]] (opposition to the Altar and the Throne) would remain a distinctive feature of the French Left, until this day. Most [[Catholicism in France|practicing Catholics]] continue to vote conservative to this day. |
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The Kaaba is a large masonry structure roughly the shape of a [[Cube (geometry)|cube]]. It is made of [[granite]] from the hills near [[Mecca]], and stands upon a {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} [[marble]] base, which projects outwards about 30 cm (1 ft).<ref name="eoi317"/> It is approximately {{convert|13.10|m|ft|2|abbr=on}} high, with sides measuring {{convert|11.03|m|ft|2|abbr=on}} by {{convert|12.62|m|ft|2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book| last = Peterson| first = Andrew| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Dictionary of Islamic Architecture.| publisher = Routledge |year=1996| location = London| url = http://archnet.org/library/dictionary/| doi = | id = }}</ref><ref name="eq76">Hawting, G.R; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an p. 76</ref> The four corners of the Kaaba roughly face the four points of the compass.<ref name="eoi317"/> In the eastern corner of the Kaaba is the ''Ruknu l-Aswad'' "[[Black Stone]]" or ''al-Ħajaru l-Aswad'', possibly a [[meteorite]] remnant; at the northern corner is the ''Ruknu l-ˤĪrāqī'' "The Iraqi corner". The western corner is the ''Ruknu sh-Shāmī'' "the Levantine corner" and the southern is ''Ruknu l-Yamanī'' "the Yemeni corner".<ref name="eoi317"/><ref name="eq76"/> |
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The Kaaba is covered by a black silk curtain known as the [[kiswah]], which is replaced yearly.<ref>{{cite web| last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = 'House of God' Kaaba gets new cloth| work =| publisher = The Age Company Ltd.|year=2003| url = http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/02/11/1044725746252.html| format = | doi = | accessdate = 2006-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Kiswa - (Kaaba Covering)| work =| publisher = Al-Islaah Publications| date = | url = http://members.tripod.com/worldupdates/newupdates10/id43.htm| format = | doi = | accessdate = 2006-08-17}}</ref> About two-thirds of the way up runs a band of gold-embroidered calligraphy with [[Qur'an]]ic text, including the Islamic declaration of faith, the ''[[Shahadah]]''. |
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== 19th century == |
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[[History of Paris|Paris]] was through-out the 19th century the permanent theater of insurrectionary movements and headquarters of European revolutionaries. Following the [[French Revolution]] of 1789 and the [[First French Empire]], the [[House of Bourbon]] had returned to power in the [[Bourbon Restoration]]. The Restoration was dominated by the [[Counter-revolutionaries]] who refused all inheritance of the Revolution and aimed at re-establishing the [[divine right]] of kings. The [[White Terror]] struck the Left, while the [[ultra-royalist]]s tried to bypass their king on his right. This intransigeance of the [[Legitimist]] monarchists, however, finally led to [[Charles X]]'s downfall during the [[Three Glorious Days]], or [[July Revolution]] of 1830. The [[House of Orléans]], cadet branch of the Bourbon, then came to power with [[Louis-Philippe]], marking the new influence of the second, important right-wing tradition of France (according to the historian [[René Rémond]]'s famous classification), the [[Orleanist]]s. More [[Liberalism|liberals]] than the aristocratic supporters of the Bourbon, the Orleanists aimed at achieving a form of national reconciliation, symbolized by Louis-Philippe's famous statement in January 1831: "We will attempt to remain in a ''juste milieu'' (the just middle), in an equal distance from the excesses of popular power and the abuses of royal power."<ref> Louis-Philippe was responding to an address sent by the city of [[Gaillac]], who had declared that it submitted itself to the King's government "in order to assure the development of the conquests of July" . Louis-Philippe thus responded (in French): ''« Nous chercherons à nous tenir dans un ''juste milieu'', également éloigné des excès du pouvoir populaire et des abus du pouvoir royal. »'' Quoted by Guy Antonetti, ''Louis-Philippe'', Paris, Librairie Arthème Fayard, 2002 (p.713) </ref> |
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In modern times, entrance to the inside of the Kaaba is generally not permitted except for certain rare occasions and for very limited numbers of guests. When open, the Kaaba is entered through a door set {{convert|2|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} above the ground on the north-eastern wall of the Kaaba, which acts as the façade.<ref name="eoi317"/> There is a wooden staircase on wheels, usually stored in the mosque between the arch-shaped gate of Banū Shaybah and the well of [[Zamzam]]. Inside the Kaaba, there is a marble floor. The interior walls are clad with marble halfway to the roof; tablets with Qur'anic inscriptions are inset in the marble. The top part of the walls are covered with a green cloth decorated with gold embroidered [[Qur'an]]ic verses. Caretakers perfume the marble cladding with scented oil, the same oil used to anoint the [[Black Stone]] outside. |
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=== The Bourbon Restoration === |
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{{see|Bourbon Restoration}} |
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{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}} |
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=== The July Monarchy === |
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{{see|July Monarchy|French Revolution of 1848}} |
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Although not directly connected to it, there is a semi-circular wall opposite the north-west wall of the Kaaba known as the ''hatīm''. It is {{convert|90|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in height and {{convert|1.5|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} in length, and is composed of [[white marble]]. The space between the ''hatīm'' and the Kaaba was for a time belonging to the Kaaba itself, and so is generally not entered during the ''[[tawaf]]'' (ritual circumambulation). It is also thought by some that this space bears the graves of Abu Simbel, prophet [[Ishmael]] and his mother [[Hagar (Bible)|Hagar]].<ref name="eoi317"/> |
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The July Monarchy was thus divided into the supporters of the "Citizen King", of the [[constitutional monarchy]] and of [[census suffrage]], the right-wing opposition to the regime (the [[Legitimist]]s) and the left-wing opposition (the [[Republicanism|Republicans]] and [[Socialist]]s). The loyalists were divided into two parties, the conservative, center-right, ''Parti de la résistance'' (Party of the Resistance), and the [[reformist]] center-left ''Parti du mouvement'' (Party of the Movement). Republicans and Socialists, who requested social and political reforms, including [[universal suffrage]] and the "[[right to work]]" (''droit du travail''), were then at the far-left of the political board. The ''Parti du mouvement'' supported the "[[nationalism|nationalities]]" in Europe, which were trying, all over of Europe, to shake the grip of the various Empires in order to create [[nation-states]]. Its mouthpiece was ''[[Le National]]''. The center-right was conservative and supported peace with European monarchs, and had as mouthpiece ''[[Le Journal des débats]]''. |
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Muslims throughout the world face the Kaaba during [[salat|prayers]], which are five times a day. For most places around the world, coordinates for Mecca suffice. Worshippers in the [[Masjid Al Haram|the Sacred Masjid]] pray in [[Concentric|concentric circles]] radiating outwards around the Kaaba. |
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The only social law of the bourgeois, July Monarchy, had been to outlaw, in 1841, [[child labor|labor to children]] under 8 years old, and night labor for those of less than 13 years. The law, however, was almost never implemented. Christians imagined a "charitable economy", while the ideas of [[Socialism]], in particular [[Utopian Socialism]] ([[Saint-Simon]], [[Charles Fourier]], etc.) diffused themselves. [[Blanqui]] theorized Socialist coup d'états, the socialist and [[Anarchism in France|anarchist]] thinker [[Proudhon]] theorized [[mutualism (economy)|mutualism]], while [[Karl Marx]] arrived in Paris in 1843, and met there [[Friedrich Engels]]. |
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==Black Stone== |
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Marx had come to Paris to work with [[Arnold Ruge]], another revolutionary from Germany, on the ''[[Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher]]'', while Engels had come especially to meet Marx. There, he showed him his work, ''[[The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844]]''. Marx wrote for the ''[[Vorwärts]]'' revolutionary newspaper, established and run by the secret society called [[League of the Just]], founded by German workers in Paris in 1836 and inspired by the revolutionary [[Gracchus Babeuf]] and his ideal of [[social equality]]. The League of the Just was a splinter group from the [[League of Outlaws]] (''Bund der Geaechteten'') created in Paris two years before by [[Theodore Schuster]], [[Wilhelm Weitling]] and others German emigrants, mostly [[journeymen]]. Schusterr was inspired by the works of [[Philippe Buonarroti]]. The latter league had a pyramidal structure inspired by the [[secret society]] of the Republican ''[[Carbonari]]'', and shared ideas with [[Saint-Simon]] and [[Charles Fourier]]'s utopian socialism. Their aim was to establish a "Social Republic" in the German states which would respect "freedom", "equality" and "civic virtue". |
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{{main|Black Stone}} |
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The Black Stone is a significant feature of the Kaaba, believed by Muslims to date back to the time of [[Adam and Eve]].<ref name="SaudiCities>{{cite web|author=SaudiCities - The Saudi Experience|title=Makkah - The Holy Mosque:The Black Stone|publisher=|accessdate=August 13|accessyear=2006|url=http://www.saudicities.com/mmosque.htm}}</ref> Located on the eastern corner of the Kaaba, it is about 30 cm (12 inches) in diameter and surrounded by a silver frame. Hajj pilgrims often attempt to kiss the Stone as Muhammad once did.<ref>{{cite book|title=Your Door to Arabia|last=Elliott|first=Jeri| year=1992|id=ISBN 0-473-01546-3}}</ref> Because of the large crowds, this is not always possible, and so as pilgrims walk around the Kaaba, they are to point to the Stone on each circuit.<ref name=AtoZ>{{cite book | title=Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z | last = Mohamed | first= Mamdouh N. | year = 1996 | publisher=Amana Publications | id= ISBN 0-915957-54-x}}</ref> |
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== History == |
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[[Image:Rue Transnonain.jpg|thumb|left|230px|The massacre of the the rue Transnonain, Paris, on 14 April 1834, depicted by the caricaturist [[Honoré Daumier]].]] |
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=== Before Islam === |
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The League of the Just participated in the [[Louis Auguste Blanqui|Blanquist]] uprising of May 1839 in Paris<ref> [http://socialistregister.com/socialistregister.com/files/SR_1998_Moss.pdf Marx and the Permanent Revolution in France: Background to the Communist Manifesto] by Bernard Moss, p.10, in ''[[The Socialist Register]]'', 1998 </ref>. Hereafter expelled from France, the League of the Just moved to London, where they would transform themselves into the [[Communist League]]. |
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[[Image:Gate of Masjid Haram.jpg|thumb|right|upright|'King Fahad' gate of the Grand Masjid ([[Masjid al Haram]]) in [[Mecca]].]] |
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[[Image:ENTER HARAM ON 2007.jpg|thumb|right|upright|'King Fahad' gate of the Grand Masjid at night in [[Mecca]].]] |
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As little is known of the history of the Kaaba, there are various opinions regarding its formation and significance. |
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The [[pre-Islamic Arabia|early Arabian]] population consisted primarily of warring nomadic tribes. When they did converge peacefully, it was usually under the protection of religious practices.<ref>Grunebaum, p. 18</ref> Writing in the ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', Wensinck identifies [[Mecca]] with a place called ''Macoraba'' mentioned by [[Ptolemy]]. His text is believed to date from the [[2nd century|second century AD]], before the rise of Islam,<ref name="eoi318">Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] IV p. 318 (1927, 1978)</ref> and described it as a foundation in southern Arabia, built around a sanctuary. The area probably did not start becoming an area of religious pilgrimage until around the year 500 AD. It was around then that the [[Quraysh]] tribe (into which [[Muhammad]] was later born) took control of it, and made an agreement with the local Kinana [[Bedouins]] for control.<ref>Grunebaum, p. 19</ref> The [[sanctuary]] itself, located in a barren valley surrounded by mountains, was probably built at the location of the water source today known as the [[Zamzam Well]], an area of considerable religious significance. |
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In his spare-time, Marx studied Proudhon, whom he would later criticize in ''[[The Poverty of Philosophy]]'' (1847). He developed his [[Marx's theory of alienation|theory of alienation]] in the ''[[Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844]]'', published posthumously, as well as his theory of [[ideology]] in ''[[The German Ideology]]'' (1845), in which he criticized the [[Young Hegelians]]: "''It has not occurred to any one of these philosophers to inquire into the connection of [[German philosophy]] with German reality, the relation of their criticism to their own material surroundings.''"<ref> [[Karl Marx]], ''[[The German Ideology]]'', 1845 (Part I, "[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm Ideology in General, German Ideology in Particular]" {{en icon}}</ref>. For the first time, Marx related history of ideas with economic history, linking the "ideological superstructure" with the "economical infrastructure", and thus tying together [[Marxist theory|philosophy and economics]]. Inspired both by [[Friedrich Hegel]] and [[Adam Smith]], he imagined an original theory based on the key Marxist notion of [[class struggle]], which appeared to him self-evident in the Parisian context of insurrection and permanent turmoil. "''The dominant ideology is the ideology of the dominant class,''" did he conclude in his essay, setting up the program for the years to come, a program which would be further explicated in ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'', published on 21 February, 1848, as the manifesto of the Communist League, three days before the proclamation of the [[Second Republic (France)|Second Republic]]. Arrested and expelled to Belgium, Marx was then invited by the new regime back to Paris, where he was able to witness the [[June Days Uprising]] first hand. |
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Eiichi<ref>Imoti, Eiichi. "The Ka'ba-i Zardušt", ''Orient'', XV (1979), The Society for Near Eastern Studies in Japan, pp. 65-69.</ref> contends that there were multiple such "Kaaba" sanctuaries in Arabia at one time, but this is the only one built of stone. The others also allegedly had counterparts to the Black Stone. There was a "red stone", the deity of the south Arabian city of [[Ghaiman]], and the "white stone" in the Kaaba of al-Abalat (near the city of [[Tabala]], south of Mecca). Grunebaum in ''Classical Islam'' points out that the experience of divinity of that time period was often associated with stone [[fetishes]], mountains, special rock formations, or "trees of strange growth."<ref>Grunebaum, p. 24</ref> |
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=== The 1848 Revolution and the Second Republic === |
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{{see|1848 Revolutions in France|French Second Republic}} |
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According to [[Karen Armstrong]], in her book ''Islam: A Short History'', the Kaaba was dedicated to [[Hubal]], a [[Nabatean]] deity, and contained 360 idols which either represented the days of the year,<ref name=armstrong>{{cite book|pages=11|title=Islam: A Short History|author=Karen Armstrong|isbn=0-8129-6618-x|date=2000,2002}}</ref> or were effigies of the [[:Category:Arabian deities|Arabian pantheon]]. Once a year, tribes from all around the Arabian peninsula, be they Christian or pagan, would converge on Mecca to perform the ''Hajj''. |
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The February 1848 Revolution toppled the July Monarchy, replaced by the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] (1848-1852), while the [[June Days Uprising]] (or June 1848 Revolution) gave a lethal blow to the hopes of a "[[Socialism|Social]] and [[Democracy|Democratic]] [[Republicanism|Republic]]" ("''la République sociale et démocratique''", or "''La Sociale''"). On [[December 2]], [[1851]], [[Napoleon III of France|Louis Napoleon]] ended the Republic by a [[French coup of 1851|coup d'état]] proclaiming the [[French Second Empire|Second Empire]] (1852-1870) the next year. The Second Republic, however, is best remembered for having first established male [[universal suffrage]] and for [[Victor Schoelcher]]'s [[abolitionism|abolition]] of [[slavery]] on [[April 27]], [[1848]]. The February Revolution also established the principle of the "[[right to work]]" (''droit au travail'' - or "right to have a work"), and decided to establish "[[National Workshops]]" for the [[unemployment|unemployed]]. At the same time a sort of industrial parliament was established at the [[Luxembourg Palace]], under the presidency of [[Louis Blanc]], with the object of preparing a scheme for the organization of labour. These tensions between right-wing, [[liberalism|liberal]] [[Orleanism|Orleanist]]s, and left-wing, [[Radicalism (historical)|Radical]] Republicans and [[Socialists]] caused the second, June Revolution. In December, [[French presidential election, 1848|presidential elections]] were held, for the first time in France. [[Democracy]] seemed at first to triumph, as [[universal suffrage]] was implemented also for the first time. The left was divided however into three candidacies, [[Lamartine]] and [[Cavaignac]], the repressor of the June Days Uprising, on the center-left, [[Alexandre Ledru-Rollin]] as representant of the Republican Left, and [[Raspail]] as far-left, Socialist, candidate. Both Raspail and Lamartine obtained less than 1%, Cavaignac reached almost 20%, while the prince [[Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte]] surprisingly won the election with almost 75% of the votes, marking an important defeat of the Republican and Socialist camp. |
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To keep the peace among the perpetually warring tribes, Mecca was declared a sanctuary where no violence was allowed within {{convert|20|mi|km}} of the Kaaba. This combat-free zone allowed Mecca to thrive not only as a place of pilgrimage, but also as a trading center.<ref>Armstrong, ''Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths'', p. 221-222</ref> According to the ''[[Boston Globe]]'', the Kaaba was a shrine for the Daughters of God ([[Allat|al-Lat]], [[Uzza|al-Uzza]], and [[Manah|Manat]]) and Hubal.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ask the Globe|publisher=[[Boston Globe]]|date=[[April 23]], [[1999]]}}</ref> |
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=== Second Empire === |
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{{see|French Second Empire}} |
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The Kaaba was thought to be at the center of the world with the Gate of Heaven directly above it. The Kaaba marked the location where the divine world intersected with the mundane, and the embedded [[Black Stone]] was a further symbol of this as a meteorite that had fallen from the sky and linked heaven and earth.<ref>Armstrong, ''Jerusalem'', p. 221</ref> |
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After having been elected by universal suffrage President of the Republic [[French presidential election, 1848|in December 1848]], [[Napoleon III|Louis Napoleon Bonaparte]] took power during the [[1851 coup (France)|1851 coup]], and proclaimed himself Emperor, establishing the [[Second Empire (France)|Second Empire]]. This was a blow to the Left's hopes during the Republic, which had already been crushed after the [[June Days Uprising]] during which the bourgeoisie took the upper hand. Napoleon III followed at first authoritarian policies, before attempting a liberal shift in the end of his reign. Many left-wing activists exiled themselves to London, where the [[First International]] was founded in 1864. |
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According to Sarwar,<ref>{{cite book|title=Muhammad the Holy Prophet''|author=Hafiz Ghulam Sarwar|pages=18-19}}</ref> about four hundred years before the birth of Muhammad, a man named "Amr bin Lahyo bin Harath bin Amr ul-Qais bin Thalaba bin Azd bin Khalan bin Babalyun bin Saba", who was descended from [[Qahtan]] and king of [[Hijaz]] (the northwestern section of Saudi Arabia, which encompassed the cities of Mecca and Medina), had placed a Hubal idol onto the roof of the Kaaba, and this idol was one of the chief deities of the ruling [[Quraysh]] tribe. The idol was made of red agate, and shaped like a human, but with the right hand broken off and replaced with a golden hand. When the idol was moved inside the Kaaba, it had seven arrows in front of it, which were used for [[divination]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bible.ca/islam/islam-moon-god-hubal.htm|title=Hubal, the moon god of the Kaba|author=Brother Andrew|publisher=bible.ca|accessdate=2007-09-04}}</ref> |
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{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}} |
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[[Patricia Crone]] disagrees with most academic historians on most issues concerning the history of early Islam, including the history of the Kaaba. In ''Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam'', Crone writes that she believes that the identification of Macoraba with the Kaaba is false, and that Macoraba was a town in southern Arabia in what was then known as [[History of Yemen|Arabia Felix]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Crone| first = Patricia| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam| publisher = Gorgias |year=2004| location = Piscataway, New Jersey| url =| doi = | id = }} pp. 134-137</ref> |
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== From the Commune to World War I == |
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{{see|Paris Commune}} |
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[[Image:PereDuchesneIllustre4 1 0.png|thumb|right|350px|[[Adolphe Thiers]] charging on the ''[[Communards]]'', in ''[[Le Père Duchesne|Le Père Duchênes illustré]]'' magazine.]] |
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After the [[Paris Commune]] of 1871, the French Left was decimated for ten years. Until the 1880s general amnesty, this harsh repression, directed by [[Adolphe Thiers]], would heavily disorganize the French [[labour movement]] during the early years of the [[French Third Republic]] (1871-1940). According to historian [[Benedict Anderson]]... |
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<blockquote>"''roughly 20,000 Communards or suspected sympathizers [were executed during the Bloody Week], a number higher than those killed in the recent war or during [[Robespierre]]'s ‘[[Reign of Terror|Terror]]’ of 1793–94. More than 7,500 were jailed or deported to places like [[New Caledonia]]. Thousands of others fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left. Not till 1880 was there a general amnesty for exiled and imprisoned Communards. Meantime, the Third Republic found itself strong enough to renew and reinforce [[Napoleon III|Louis Napoleon]]'s imperialist expansion—in Indochina, Africa, and Oceania. Many of France's leading intellectuals and artists had participated in the Commune ([[Gustave Courbet|Courbet]] was its quasi-minister of culture, [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]] and [[Pissarro]] were active propagandists) or were sympathetic to it. The ferocious repression of 1871 and after was probably the key factor in alienating these milieux from the Third Republic and stirring their sympathy for its victims at home and abroad.''"<ref>{{cite news |
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|author=Benedict Anderson |
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|title=In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel |
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|date=July-August 2004 |
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|publisher=[[New Left Review]] |
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|url=http://newleftreview.org/?view=2519 |
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|accessdate=2007-02-21 }}</ref></blockquote> |
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Many accounts, including Muslim accounts, and some accounts written by academic historians, stress the power and importance of the pre-Islamic Mecca.{{weasel-inline}} They depict it as a city grown rich on the proceeds of the [[spice trade]]. Crone believes that this is an exaggeration and that Makkan may only have been an outpost trading with nomads for leather, cloth, and camel butter. Crone argues that if Mecca had been a well-known center of trade, it would have been mentioned by later authors such as Procopius, Nonnosus, and the Syrian church chroniclers writing in Syriac. However, the town is absent from any geographies or histories written in the last three centuries before the rise of Islam.<ref>{{cite book| last = Crone| first = Patricia| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam| publisher = Gorgias |year=2004| location = Piscataway, New Jersey| url =| doi = | id = }} p. 137</ref> |
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The [[French legislative election, February 1871|February 1871 legislative elections]] had been won by the monarchists [[Orleanist]]s and [[Legitimist]]s, and it was not until the [[French legislative election, 1876|1876 elections]] that the [[Republicanism|Republicans]] won a majority in the [[Chamber of Deputies (France)|Chamber of Deputies]]. Henceforth, the first task for the center-left was to firmly establish the [[Third Republic (France)|Third Republic]], proclaimed in September 1870. Rivalry between the [[Legitimist]]s and the [[Orleanist]]s prevented a new [[Bourbon Restoration]], and the Third Republic became firmly established with the 1875 Constitutional Laws. However, anti-Republican agitation continued, with various crisis, including the [[Boulangisme]] crisis or the [[Dreyfus Affair]]. The main political forces in the Left at this time were the [[Opportunist Republicans]], the [[Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party]], and the emergent [[Socialist]] parties who won several municipal elections in the 1880s, establishing what has been dubbed "municipal socialism." At the turn of the 20th century, the Radicals replaced the Opportunists as the main center-left forces, although the latter, who slowly became social [[conservative]]s, continued to claim their place as members of the Left{{ndash}} a political phenomenon known as "''[[sinistrisme]]''". |
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According to The [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopaedia Britannica]], "before the rise of Islam it was revered as a sacred sanctuary and was a site of pilgrimage."<ref>Britannica 2002 Deluxe Edition [[CD-ROM]], "Ka'bah."</ref> According to the [[Germany|German]] historian Eduard Glaser, the name "''Kaaba''" may have been related to the southern [[Arabian]] or [[Ethiopia]]n word "''mikrab''", signifying a temple.<ref name="eoi318"/> Again, Crone disputes this etymology. |
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Furthermore, in 1894 the government of [[Waldeck-Rousseau]], a moderate Republican, legalized trade-unions, enabling the creation of the ''[[Confédération générale du travail]]'' (General Confederation of Labour, CGT) the following year, issued from a merger of [[Fernand Pelloutier]]'s ''[[Bourses du travail]]'' and other, local workers' associations. Dominated by anarcho-syndicalists, the unification of the CGT culminated in 1902, attracting figures such as [[Victor Griffuelhes]] or [[Emile Pouget]], and then boasting 100,000 members. |
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=== |
=== Islamic tradition === |
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[[Image:Kaba.jpg|thumb|left|Picture of the Kaaba taken in 1880]] |
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{{see|Opportunist Republicans}} |
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According to the [[Qur'an]], the Kaaba was built by [[Ibrahim]] ([[Abraham]]) and his son Ismāʿīl ([[Ishmael]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.127|title=AL-BAQARA (THE COW)|publisher=[[University of Southern California]]|accessdate=2008-01-25}}</ref> Islamic traditions assert that the Kaaba "reflects" a house in heaven called al-Baytu l-Maʿmur<ref>{{cite web|author=Hajj-e-Baytullah|title=Baytullah - The House of Allah|publisher=|accessmonthday=August 13 |accessyear=2006|url=http://www.ezsoftech.com/hajj/hajj_article1.asp}}</ref> ({{lang-ar|البيت المعمور}}) and that it was first built by the first man, [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]. Ibrahim and Ismail rebuilt the Kaaba on the old foundations. <ref>Azraqi, ''Akhbar Makkah'', vol. 1, pp. 58-66</ref> |
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Thus, until the turn of the 20th century, the dominant forces of the French Left were composed of the [[Opportunist Republicans]], whom considered that the Republican regime could only be consolidated by successive phases. Those dominated French politics from 1876 to the 1890s. The "Opportunists" included figures such as [[Léon Gambetta]], leader of the [[Republican Union (France)|Republican Union]] who had participated to the Commune, [[Jules Ferry]], leader of the [[Republican Left (France)|Republican Left]] who passed the [[Jules Ferry laws]] on public, mandatory and secular education, [[Charles de Freycinet]], who directed several governments in this period, [[Jules Favre]], [[Jules Grévy]] or [[Jules Simon]]. While Gambetta opposed [[French colonial empire|colonialism]] as he considered it a diversion from the "blue line of the [[Vosges]]", that is of the possibility of a [[Revanchism|revenge]] against the newly founded [[German Empire]], Ferry was part of the "colonial lobby" who took part in the [[Scramble for Africa]]. |
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==== At the time of Muhammad ==== |
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The Opportunists broke away with the [[Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party]] which aimed at deep transformations of society, leading to strong disagreements in the Chamber of Deputies, in particular with [[Georges Clemenceau]]. At the end of the 19th century, the Opportunists were replaced by the Radicals as the primary force in French politics. |
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[[Image:Mohammed kaaba 1315.jpg|right|thumb|A 1315 image of Muhammad lifting the [[Black Stone]] into place, when the Kaaba was rebuilt in the early 600s.<ref name=uscmsa>{{cite web|author=University of Southern California|title=The Prophet of Islam - His Biography|publisher=|accessdate=August 12|accessyear=2006|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/profbio.html}}</ref>]] |
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At the time of [[Muhammad]] (570-632 AD), his tribe the [[Quraish|Quraysh]] was in charge of the Kaaba, which was at that time a shrine to numerous [[Arabian mythology|Arabian tribal gods]]. Muhammad earned the enmity of his tribe by claiming their shrine for the religion of Islam that he preached. He wanted the Kaaba to be dedicated to the worship of God alone, and all the other statues evicted. The Quraysh persecuted and harassed him continuously, and he and his followers eventually migrated to [[Medina]] in 622. |
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After this pivotal migration, or [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]], the [[Ummah|Muslim community]] became a political and military force. In 630, Muhammad and his followers returned to Mecca as conqueror, and he destroyed the 360 idols in and around the Kaaba.<ref name=Ahram>{{cite news|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2001/536/in7.htm |title=Islam, iconography and the Taliban|work=Al-Ahram Weekly Online|date=31 My - 6 June 2001|number=536|author=Hamali, Mohamed Hashim|accessdate=2008-10-05}}</ref><ref name=uscMSA>{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_76.html |title=Conquest of Makkah|publisher=University of Southern California|work=Compendium of Muslim Texts|accessdate=2008-10-05}}</ref> While destroying each idol, Muhammad recited {{Quran|17|81}} which says "Truth has arrived and falsehood has perished for falsehood is by its nature bound to perish."<ref name=Ahram/><ref name=uscMSA/> |
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In 1879, [[Paul Brousse]] founded the first Socialist party of France, dubbed [[Federation of the Socialist Workers of France]] (''Fédération des travailleurs socialistes de France'', FTSF). It was characterised as "[[Possibilism (French Socialist)|possibilist]]" because it promoted gradual reforms. In the same time, [[Edouard Vaillant]] and the heirs of [[Louis Auguste Blanqui]] founded the [[Central Revolutionary Committee]] (''Comité révolutionnaire central'' or CRC), which represented the French revolutionary tradition. However, three years later, [[Jules Guesde]] and [[Paul Lafargue]] (the son-in-law of [[Karl Marx]], famous for having written ''[[The Right to Be Lazy]]'', which criticized [[Workforce|labour]]'s [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]]) left the federation, which they considered too moderate, and founded the [[French Workers' Party]] (''Parti ouvrier français'', POF) in 1880, which was the first [[Marxist]] [[political party|party]] in [[France in the nineteenth century|France]]. |
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The Kaaba was re-dedicated as an Islamic [[Place of worship|house of worship]], and henceforth, the annual pilgrimage was to be a Muslim rite, the [[Hajj]].<ref name="Grolier_Society_Book_of_History">{{cite book |
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=== Propaganda of the deed and exile to Great Britain === |
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| coauthors = W.M. Flinders Petrie, Hans F. Helmolt, Stanley Lane-Poole, Robert Nisbet Bain, Hugo Winckler, Archibald H. Sayce, Alfred Russel Wallace, Sir William Lee-Warner, Holland Thompson, W. Stewart Wallace |
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{{see|Anarchism in France|Propaganda of the deed}} |
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| others = Viscount Bryce (Introduction) |
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A few years later, parts of the [[Anarchism in France|anarchist movement]], based in Switzerland, started theorizing [[propaganda of the deed]]. [[Bakunin]] and other federalists had been excluded by [[Karl Marx]] from the [[First International]] (or International Workingmen's Association, founded in London in 1864) during the [[Hague Congress]] of 1872. The Socialist tradition had split between the anarchists, or "anti-authoritarian Socialists", and the Communists. A year after their exclusion, the Bakuninists created the [[Jura Federation]], which called for the creation of a new, anti-authoritarian International, dubbed [[Anarchist St. Imier International]] (1872-1877). The latter was made up of several groups, mainly the [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian]], [[Anarchism in Spain|Spanish]], [[Anarchism in Belgium|Belgian]], [[Anarchism in the United States|American]], French and Swiss sections, who opposed Marx's control of the Central Council and favoured the autonomy of national sections free from centralized control. |
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| title = The Book of History, a History of All Nations From the Earliest Times to the Present |
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| origyear = 1915 |
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| publisher = The Grolier Society |
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}}</ref> |
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Islamic histories also mention a reconstruction of the Kaaba around 600. A story found in [[Ibn Ishaq]]'s ''Sirat Rasūl Allāh'' (as reconstructed and translated by Guillaume) shows Muhammad settling a quarrel between Meccan clans as to which clan should set the [[Black Stone]] cornerstone in place. His solution was to have all the clan elders raise the cornerstone on a cloak, and then Muhammad set the stone into its final place with his own hands.<ref>{{cite book| last = Guillaume| first = A.| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Life of Muhammad | publisher = Oxford University Press |year=1955 | location = Oxford| doi = | id = }} pp. 84-87</ref><ref name=uscmsa>{{cite web|author=University of Southern California|title=The Prophet of Islam - His Biography|publisher=|accessdate=August 12|accessyear=2006|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/profbio.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch1s6.html | title = Muhammad's Birth and Forty Years prior to Prophethood|work=Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Memoirs of the Noble Prophet|accessdate=2007-05-04|author=Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, translated by Issam Diab|year=1979}}</ref> Ibn Ishaq says that the timber for the reconstruction of the Kaaba came from a Greek ship that had been wrecked on [[Red Sea|the Red Sea]] coast at Shu'ayba, and the work was undertaken by a [[Coptic]] carpenter called Baqum.<ref>Cyril Glasse, ''New Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 245. Rowman Altamira, 2001. ISBN 0759101906</ref> |
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In December 1893, the anarchist [[Auguste Vaillant]] threw a bomb in the National Assembly, injuring one. The Opportunist Republicans swiftly reacted, voting two days later the "''[[lois scélérates]]''", severely restricting [[freedom of expression]]. The first one condemned apology of any felony or crime as a felony itself, permitting wide-spread [[censorship (France)|censorship]] of the press. The second one allowed to condemn any person directly or indirectly involved in a propaganda of the deed act, even if no killing was effectively carried on. The last one condemned any person or newspaper using anarchist [[propaganda]] (and, by extension, socialist libertarians present or former members of the International Workingmen's Association (IWA). Thus, [[free speech]] and encouraging propaganda of the deed or [[antimilitarism]] was severely restricted. Some people were condemned to prison for rejoicing themselves of the 1894 assassination of French president [[Marie François Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] by the Italian anarchist [[Sante Geronimo Caserio|Caserio]]. |
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It is also claimed by the [[Shia Islam|Shīʿa]] that the Kaaba is the birth place of [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib]], the fourth [[caliph]] and cousin and son-in-law of the [[Prophets of Islam|Islamic prophet]] Muhammad.<ref name="Grolier_Society_Book_of_History"/> |
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Following these events, the United Kingdom once again became the last haven for [[political refugee]]s, in particular anarchists, who were all conflated with the few who had engaged in bombings. Henceforth, the UK became a nest for anarchist colonies expelled from the continent, in particular between 1892 and 1895, which marked the height of the repression. [[Louise Michel]], aka "the Red Virgin", [[Emile Pouget]] or [[Charles Matato]] were the most famous of the many, anonymous anarchists, [[desertion|deserters]] or simple criminals who had fled France and other European countries. These exilees would only return to France after President [[Felix Faure]]'s [[amnesty]] in February 1895. A few hundreds persons related to the anarchist movement would however remain in the UK between 1880 and 1914. In reaction, the British restricted [[right of asylum]], a national tradition since the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] in the 16th century. Several hate campaigns were issued in the British press in the 1890s against these French exilees, relayed by riots and a "restrictionist" party which advocated the end of liberality concerning freedom of movement, and hostility towards French and international activists<ref> [http://www.univ-paris13.fr/CRIDAF/DOCTORANTS/BANTMAN-Constance.htm Project of a doctoral thesis], continuing work on "French Anarchists in England, 1880-1905", including a large French & English bibliography, with archives and contemporary newspapers. </ref> |
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=== Since Muhammad's time === |
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In the meanwhile, important figures in the anarchist movement began to distance themselves with this understanding of "propaganda of the deed", in part because of the state repression against the whole labor movement provoked by such individual acts. In 1887, [[Peter Kropotkin]] thus wrote in ''[[Le Révolté]]'' that "it is an illusion to believe that a few kilos of [[dynamite]] will be enough to win against the coalition of exploiters".<ref> [[Dynamite]] had been invented in 1862 by [[Alfred Nobel|Nobel]], who gave his name to the eponymous prize and... to the [[Nobel peace prize]]. </ref> A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favor of collective revolutionary action, for example through the [[trade union]] movement. The [[anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]], [[Fernand Pelloutier]], leader of the ''[[Bourses du travail]]'' from 1895 until his death in 1901, argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labor movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter." |
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The Kaaba has been repaired and reconstructed many times since Muhammad's day. |
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[[Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr]], an early Muslim who ruled Mecca for many years between the death of ʿAli and the consolidation of [[Ummayad]] power, is said to have demolished the old Kaaba and rebuilt it to include the ''hatīm'', a semi-circular wall now outside the Kaaba. He did so on the basis of a tradition (found in several [[hadith collection]]s<ref>[[Sahih Bukhari]] 1506, 1508;[[Sahih Muslim]] 1333</ref>) that the ''hatīm'' was a remnant of the foundations of the Abrahamic Kaaba, and that Muhammad himself had wished to rebuild so as to include it. |
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=== The anarcho-syndicalist movement === |
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[[Image:Kaba01.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Left: Conceptual representation of Kaba, as built by Abraham; Right: Conceptual representation of Kaba as it stands today]] |
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The ''[[Bourses du travail|Fédération des Bourses du Travail]]'' was created in 1892, on a decentralized basis, federating each city workers' organization. Three years later, they merged in the ''[[Confédération générale du travail]]'' (CGT) trade-union, dominated by anarcho-syndicalists until the First World War. In 1894, the government of [[Waldeck-Rousseau]], a moderate Republican, had legalized workers' and employers' trade-unions ([[Waldeck-Rousseau Act]]), thus allowing such a legal form of association. The CGT's most important sections were then workers in railway companies and in the printing industry (''cheminots'' and ''ouvriers du livre''). For decades, the CGT would dominate the labor movement, keeping away from the political field and the parliamentary system (''[[History of the Left in France#Creation of the SFIO|See below: Creation of the SFIO]] and [[Charter of Amiens]].''). |
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This structure was destroyed (or partially destroyed) in 683, during the war between [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam|al-Zubayr]] and Umayyad forces commanded by [[Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef]]. Al-Hajjaj used stone-throwing catapults against the Meccans. This episode has been depicted by many Muslim chroniclers as a black mark against the Ummayad caliph [[Yazid I]], who ordered the campaign against Mecca. Yazid died in 683, the year his forces attacked the Hijaz. |
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The Ummayads under [[Abd al-Malik|ʿAbdu l-Malik ibn Marwan]] finally reunited all the former Islamic possessions and ended the [[First Islamic civil war|long civil war]]. In 693 he had the remnants of al-Zubayr's Kaaba razed, and rebuilt on the foundations set by the Quraysh.<ref>[[Sahih Bukhari]] 1509; [[Sahih Muslim]] 1333</ref> The Kaaba returned to the cube shape it had taken during Muhammad's lifetime. |
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=== The Dreyfus Affair === |
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{{main|Dreyfus Affair}} |
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Furthermore, the [[Dreyfus Affair]] divided again France into two rival camps, the Right ([[Charles Maurras]]) supporting the Army and the Nation, while the Left ([[Emile Zola]], [[Georges Clemenceau]]) supported [[human rights]] and Justice. The Dreyfus Affair witnessed the birth of the modern [[intellectual]] engaging himself in politics, while [[nationalism]], which had been previously, under the form of [[liberal nationalism]], a characteristic of the Republican Left, became a right-wing trait, mutating into a form of [[ethnic nationalism]]. The Left itself was divided among [[Radicalism (historical)|Radical Republicans]] and the new, emerging forces advocating [[Socialism]], whether in its [[Marxist]] interpretation or [[revolutionary syndicalism]] tradition. |
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During the Hajj of 930, the [[Qarmatian]]s attacked Mecca, defiled the Zamzam Well with the bodies of pilgrims and stole the Black Stone, removing it to the oasis region of Eastern Arabia known as al-Aḥsāʾ, where it remained until the Umayyad ransomed it back in 952 CE. |
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=== Creation of the SFIO === |
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{{See|Possibilism}} |
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In 1902, Jules Guesde's [[French Workers' Party]] (POF) merged with others socialist parties to form the [[Socialist Party of France (1902)|Socialist Party of France]] (''Parti socialiste de France'', PSF), and finally merged in 1905 with [[Jean Jaurès]]' ''Parti socialiste français'' to form the [[SFIO]] (French Section of the [[Second International]]). [[Marcel Cachin]], who would lead the split in 1920 which led to the creation of the [[French Communist Party]] (first SFIC, then PCF) and edited ''[[L'Humanité]]'' newspaper, became a member of the POF in 1891. |
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Apart from repair work, the basic shape and structure of the Kaaba have not changed since then.<ref>[[Javed Ahmad Ghamidi]]. ''[http://www.renaissance.com.pk/JanIslamiShari2y5.htm The Rituals of Hajj and ‘Umrah]'', [[Mizan]], [[Al-Mawrid]]</ref> |
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In the 1880s, the Socialists knew their first electoral success, conquering some municipalities. [[Jean Allemane]] and some FTSF members criticized the focus on electoral goals. In 1890, they created the [[Revolutionary Socialist Workers' Party]] (''Parti ouvrier socialiste révolutionnaire'' or POSR), which advocated the revolutionary "[[general strike]]". Additionally, some deputies took the name Socialist without adhering to any party. These mostly advocated moderation and [[reformism|reform]]. |
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== Cleaning == |
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In 1899, a debate raged among Socialist groups about the participation of [[Alexandre Millerand]] in [[Waldeck-Rousseau]]'s cabinet (''[[Bloc des gauches]]'', Left-Wing Block), which included the [[Marquis de Gallifet]], best know for having directed the bloody repression during the Paris Commune, alongside Radicals. Furthemore, the participation in a "bourgeois government" sparked a controversy opposing Jules Guesde to [[Jean Jaurès]]. In 1902, Guesde and Vaillant founded the [[Socialist Party of France]], while Jaurès, Allemane and the possibilists formed the [[French Socialist Party]]. In 1905, during the Globe Congress, under the pressure of the [[Second International]], the two groups merged in the [[French Section of the Workers' International]] (SFIO). |
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[[Image:Kaaba Interior.jpg|thumb|right|A rare look of the interior of the Kaaba during cleaning.]] |
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The building is opened twice a year for a ceremony known as "the cleaning of the Kaaba." This ceremony takes place roughly fifteen days before the start of the month of [[Ramadan]] and the same period of time before the start of the annual pilgrimage. |
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The keys to the Kaaba are held by the [[Bani Shaiba|Banī Shaybat]] (بني شيبة) tribe. Members of the tribe greet visitors to the inside of the Kaaba on the occasion of the cleaning ceremony. A small number of dignitaries and foreign diplomats are invited to participate in the ceremony.{{Facts|date=December 2007}} The governor of Mecca leads the honored guests who ritually clean the structure, using simple brooms. Washing of the Kaaba is done with a mixture of [[Zamzam]] and [[rosewater]].<ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/English/News/2005-12/29/article08.shtml Islam Online.net - Saudi Arabia Readies for Hajj Emergencies (December 29 2005)], Retrieved November 30 2006.</ref> |
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The party remained hemmed in between the [[Radical-Socialist Party (France)|Radical Party]] and the [[anarcho-syndicalists|revolutionary syndicalists]] who dominated the trade unions. Indeed, the [[Confédération générale du travail|General Confederation of Labour]], created in 1895 from the fusion of the various ''[[Bourses du travail]]'' ([[Fernand Pelloutier]]), the unions and the industries' federations, claimed its independence and the non-distinction between political and workplace activism. This was formalized by the [[Charter of Amiens]] in 1906, a year after the unification of the other socialist tendencies in the [[SFIO]] party. The Charte d'Amiens, a cornerstone of the history of the French labor movement, asserted the autonomy of the [[workers' movement]] from the political sphere, preventing any direct link between a trade-union and a political party. It also proclaimed a [[revolutionary syndicalist]] perspective of transformation of society, through the means of the [[general strike]]. This was also one of the founding piece of [[George Sorel]]'s [[anarcho-syndicalist]] theory. |
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== |
== Qibla and prayer == |
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{{main|Qibla}} |
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{{see|Aftermaths of World War I}} |
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[[Image:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|right|Supplicating pilgrim at Masjid al-Haram]] |
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Following [[World War I]], the [[demographics of France]] were deeply renewed, with an increasing urban population, including many workers, and more immigrants to replace the deceased manpower. These demographic changes were important for the left, providing it important electoral supports. Furthermore, the slaughter during the war lead to renewed [[pacifism]] feelings, incarnated by [[Henri Barbusse]]'s ''[[Under Fire (novel)|Under Fire]]'' (1916). Many veterans, such as [[Vaillant Couturier]], then became famous communists. Finally, the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] lifted great hopes in the [[workers' movement]] ([[Jules Romain]] hailed this "''grande lueur venue de l'Est''" - "great light coming from the East"). On the opposite side of the political board, the conservatives played on the "[[red scare]]" and won a massive victory during the [[French legislative election, 1919|1919 election]], forming the "[[Blue Horizon Chamber]]". |
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For any reference point on the Earth, the [[qibla]] is the direction to the Kaaba. Muslims are ordered to face this direction during prayer ([[Qur'an]] 2:143-144). While it may appear to some non-Muslims that Muslims worship the Kaaba, it is simply the focal point for prayer. |
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Like Jews, the earliest Muslims prayed facing [[Jerusalem]]. According to Islamic tradition, when Muhammad was praying in the [[Masjid al-Qiblatain|al-Qiblatain Masjid]] (in [[Medina]]), he was ordered by God to change the qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca and the Kaaba. Various theories are advanced as to the reason for the change. |
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== The split between the reformists and the revolutionaries == |
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[[Image:1931 Counter Exhibition.jpg|thumb|right|Counter exhibition to the 1931 [[Colonial Exhibition in Paris]] (during which [[Human zoo|human beings were displayed in cages]]), organized by the [[French Communist Party|PCF]]. Titled ''Truth on the Colonies'', the first section was dedicated to abuses committed during the [[French colonial empire|colonial conquests]], and quoted [[Albert Londres]] and [[André Gide]]'s criticisms of [[forced labour]] while the second one made an apology of the Soviets' "nationalities' policy" compared to "[[imperialism|imperialist colonialism]]".]] |
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The new context issued of the Russian Revolution brought a new split in the French Left, realized during the 1920 [[Tours Congress]] when the majority of the SFIO (including [[Boris Souvarine]], [[Fernand Loriot]], etc.) decided to join the [[Third International]], thus creating the SFIC (future [[French Communist Party]], PCF), while [[Léon Blum]] and others remained in the reformist camp, in order to "keep the old house" (Blum). [[Marcel Cachin]] and [[Oscar Frossard]] travelled to [[Moscow]], invited by Lenin. |
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Muslim groups in the United States differ as to how the qibla should be oriented - some believe that the direction should be calculated as a straight line drawn on a flat map, like the familiar [[Mercator projection]] of the globe; others say that the direction is determined by the shortest line on the globe of the earth, or a [[great circle]]. At times this controversy has led to heated disputes. Flat-map Muslims in the United States pray east and slightly south; great-circle Muslims face in a north-easterly direction. In both cases, the ''exact'' orientation will vary from city to city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/14679|title=A Sine on the Road to Makkah|publisher=[[American Scientist]]| year=2001|accessdate=2008-02-03}}</ref> |
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Opposed to collaboration with the [[bourgeois]] parties, the SFIC criticized the first [[Cartel des gauches]] (Left-Wing Cartel) which had won the [[French legislative election, 1924|1924 elections]], refusing to choose between Socialists (SFIO) and [[Radical-Socialists|Radicals]] (or, as they put it, between "the plague and cholera"). After Lenin's death in 1924, the SFIC radicalized itself, following the Komintern's directions. Founders of the party were expelled, such as Boris Souvarine, the [[revolutionary syndicalist]] [[Pierre Monate]], or [[Trotskyist]] [[intellectual]]s such as [[Alfred Rosmer]] or [[Pierre Naville]]. The SFIC thus lost members, decreasing from 110,000 in 1920 to 30,000 in 1933. |
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[[Qibla compass]]es are available that tell Muslims which direction to face no matter where they are. This method requires one to align the north arrow with a particular point on the compass corresponding to one's location. Once so aligned, one simply turns toward the direction indicated by the compass's qibla pointer, which is often in the shape of a minaret. "Qibla numbers" for various locations are listed in an accompanying booklet and also indexed online.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stanleylondon.com/qiblanumbers.htm|title=Numbers for the Islamic Qibla Compasses 1999 Update (most recent)|accessdate=2008-02-03}}</ref> |
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In the same time, the SFIC organized the [[anti-colonialist]] struggle, encouraging [[Abd el-Krim]]'s insurgees during the [[Rif War (1920)]] or organizing an alternative exhibition during the 1931 [[Paris Colonial Exhibition]]. The Communist Party was then admired by intellectuals such as the [[surrealist]]s ([[André Breton]], [[Louis Aragon]], [[Paul Eluard]]...). Young philosophers such as [[Paul Nizan]] also joined it. The poet Aragon traveled to the [[USSR]], and maintained indirect relations through his wife [[Elsa Triolet]] with the Russian poet [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]]. |
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==Notes== |
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On the other hand, the SFIO opposed the revolutionary strategy of the SFIC, although maintaining a [[Marxist]] language, and prepared itself to seize power through the elections. It allied itself with the Radical-Socialist Party in the ''[[Cartel des gauches]]'', enabling it to win the [[French legislative election, 1924|1924 election]]. The Radicals [[Edouard Herriot]] or [[Edouard Daladier]] then incarnated the Radicals' opening to both Marxist parties, the SFIO and the SFIC. However, despite their alliance, the SFIO and the Radicals diverge on their views on the role of the state or on their attitude towards [[Capitalism]] and the [[middle class]]es. |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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== |
==References== |
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* Peterson, Andrew (1996). ''Dictionary of Islamic Architecture'' London: Routledge. |
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* Hawting, G.R; Ka`ba. ''Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an '' |
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* Elliott, Jeri (1992). ''Your Door to Arabia''. ISBN 0-473-01546-3. |
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* Mohamed, Mamdouh N. (1996). ''Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z''. Amana Publications. ISBN 0-915957-54-x. |
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* Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. ''Encyclopaedia of Islam IV'' |
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* Karen Armstrong (2000,2002). ''Islam: A Short History''. ISBN 0-8129-6618-x. |
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* Crone, Patricia (2004). ''Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam''. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias. |
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* [1915] ''The Book of History, a History of All Nations From the Earliest Times to the Present'', Viscount Bryce (Introduction), The Grolier Society. |
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* Guillaume, A. (1955). ''The Life of Muhammad''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
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* {{cite book|author=Grunebaum, G. E. von|title=Classical Islam: A History 600 A.D. - 1258 A.D.|publisher=Aldine Publishing Company|year=1970|isbn=202-15016-X}} |
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==External links== |
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Following the 1929 [[Wall Street Crash]] and the beginning of the [[Great Depression in France]] in 1931, debates arose inside the SFIO concerning the role of the state. [[Marcel Déat]] and [[Adrien Maquet]] created a [[Neo-Socialist]] tendency and were expelled from the SFIO in November 1933. Others, responding to the debates lifted in the right-wing by the [[Non-Conformist Movement]], theorized [[planism]] to answer the ideological and political crisis lifted by the inefficiency of [[classical liberalism]] and refusal of [[state interventionism]] in the economy. In the left-wing of the SFIO, the tendencies named ''Bataille socialiste'' (Socialist Struggle) and [[Marceau Pivert]]'s ''Gauche révolutionnaire'' (Revolutionary Left) engaged themselves in favor of a Proletarian Revolution. |
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*[http://www.elahmad.com/maps/qibla-english.htm Qibla Direction] |
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*[http://www.kabahinfo.net Kabahinfo] |
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*[http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=Makkah+Saudi+Arabia&layer=&ie=UTF8&z=18&ll=21.422525,39.826121&spn=0.003476,0.006748&t=h&om=0 Google Map Satellite view] |
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*[http://www.islamonline.net/English/hajj/2002/01/stories/article2.shtml Islamonline] |
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*[http://www.imaan.com/Kaaba.asp Imaan.com] |
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*[http://www.3dkabah.com 3D model] |
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*[http://live.gph.gov.sa SA's Official Live Webcam of the Kaaba] |
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In 1932 a second ''[[Cartel des gauches]]'' won the election, but this time the SFIO did not associate themselves in the government. The leader of the Cartel, Daladier, was forced to resign following the [[February 6, 1934 riots]] organized by [[far-right leagues]], which were immediately interpreted by the French Left as a [[Fascist]] [[coup d'état]] attempt. This led to the creation of an [[anti-fascist]] movement in France, unifying Socialists and Communists together against the fascist threat in an [[United Front]]. The ''[[Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes]]'' (CVIA) was henceforth created, while the [[French Communist Party]] (PCF) signed a pact of unity of action with the SFIO in July 1935. The Comintern had then adopted the [[Popular front]] strategy against fascism. The leader of the PCF, [[Maurice Thorez]], then initiated a [[patriotism|patriotic]] turn opposed to previous internationalism. |
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On the other hand, on June 1934 [[Leon Trotsky]] initiated the [[French Turn]], a strategy of [[entrism]] in the SFIO, supported by [[Raymond Molinier]] but opposed by [[Pierre Naville]]. |
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The same year, the [[CGTU]] trade-union, which had split from the [[CGT (France)|CGT]] after the Tours Congress, was reintegrated to the CGT. This alliance between Socialists and Communists paved the way for the victory of the [[Popular Front (France)|Popular Front]] during the [[French legislative election, 1936|1936 election]], leading [[Léon Blum]] to become Prime minister. Opposed to the alliance with bourgeois parties, the Trotskyists divided themselves, about 600 of them leaving the SFIO. |
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This new alliance between the two rival Marxist parties (the reformist SFIO and the revolutionary PCF) was an important experience mainly at the level of the party leaders. The base was already used to work together, from Social-Democrats to [[Anarchism in France|anarchists]], against the rise of fascism. People from all tendencies joined the [[POUM]] militias or the Spanish [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]], later the [[International Brigades]], to prevent [[Franco]]'s victory during the [[Spanish Civil War]]. |
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== The Popular Front (1936) == |
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{{main|Popular Front (France)}} |
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Headed by [[Léon Blum]], the Popular Front won the [[French legislative election, 1936| |
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[[3 May]] [[1936]] election]], leading to a government composed of Radical and Socialist ministers. Just as the SFIO had supported the [[Cartel des gauches]] without participating to it, the PCF supported the Popular Front without entering government. At the beginning of June 1936, massive strikes acclaimed the victory of the union of the Lefts, with more than 1,5 million workers on strike. On [[8 June]] [[1936]], the [[Matignon Agreements (1936)|Matignon Accords]] granted the 40 hours workweek to the workers, as well as right of [[collective bargaining]], right of [[strike action]], and dismantled all laws preventing organization of trade-unions. After having won these new rights, [[Maurice Thorez]], the leader of the PCF, pushed workers to stop the strikes, preventing an over-radicalization of the situation. |
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The Popular Front saw harsh opposition from the conservatives and the [[French far-right]]. Fearing the action of the [[far-right leagues|extra-parliamentary right-wing leagues]], Blum had prohibited them, leading [[François de La Rocque]] to transform the [[Croix-de-Feu]] league into a new, mass party, dubbed [[Parti Social Français]] (PSF). [[Charles Maurras]], the leader of the monarchist [[Action française]] (AF) movement, threatened Blum to death, alluding to his Jewish origins<ref name=AF>[http://www.actionfrancaise.net/histoire-biographies-charles_maurras.htm Biographical notice] on Maurras on the ''[[Action française]]'s'' website {{fr icon}}</ref>. On the other hand, the Minister [[Roger Salengro]] was pushed to suicide after attacks by a right-wing newspaper. Finally, the [[Cagoule]] terrorist group attempted several attacks. |
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In 1938, Marceau Pivert's Revolutionary Left tendency was expelled from the SFIO, and he created the [[Workers and Peasants' Socialist Party]] (PSOP) along with [[Luxemburgists]] such as [[René Lefeuvre]]. |
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== Post-war == |
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{{see|Three-parties|Third Force (France)}} |
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After the Liberation, the SFIO, under the leadership of [[Guy Mollet]] (1946-1969), definitively adopted a [[social-democrat]], reformist stance, and most of its members supported the [[colonial war]]s, in turn opposed by the PCF. The Communist Party enjoyed high popularity due to its active role in the [[French Resistance|Resistance]], and was then dubbed "''parti des 85 000 fusillés''" ("party of the 85,000 executed people"). On the other hand, the labor movement, which had been re-unified in the [[Confédération générale du travail|CGT]] during the Popular Front, split again. In 1946, the [[Anarchism in France|anarcho-syndicalists]] created the ''[[Confédération nationale du travail]]'' (CNT) trade-union, while other anarchists had already created, in 1945, the ''[[Fédération anarchiste]]'' (FA). Furthermore, left-wing opponents to Communism created the ''[[Force Ouvrière]]'' (FO) trade-union in April 1948, which was subsided by the [[American Federation of Labor]] (AFL), and assisted by the AFL sole representant in Europe, [[Irving Brown]], who worked with [[Jay Lovestone]]<ref name=FO_AFL> [http://www.humanite.fr/1997-12-19_Articles_-Force-Ouvriere-il-y-a-50-ans-la-scission Force Ouvrière : il y a 50 ans, la scission], ''[[L'Humanité]]'', 19 December, 1997 {{fr icon}}</ref><ref> Annie Lacroix-Riz, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0027-2671%28199004%2F06%29151%3C79%3AADBLLF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage Autour d'Irving Brown: l'A.F.L., le Free Trade Union Committee le Departement d'Etat et la scission syndicale francaise (1944-1947) ] in ''[[Le Mouvement social]]'', No. 151 (Apr. - Jun., 1990), pp. 79-118 - doi:10.2307/3778185 </ref>. |
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The [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] (GPRF) twice had as President of the Councils figures of the SFIO ([[Félix Gouin]] and [[Léon Blum]]). Although the GPRF was active only from 1944 to 1946, it had a lasting influence, in particular regarding the enacting of [[labour law]]s, which were envisioned by the [[Conseil National de la Résistance|National Council of the Resistance]], the umbrella organisation which united all Resistant movements, in particular the Communist [[Front National (Resistance movement)|Front National]], political front of the [[Francs-tireurs|Franc-tireurs et partisans]] (FTP) Resistance movement. Beside de Gaulle's ordinances granting, for the first time in France, [[Feminism in France|right of vote to women]], the GPRF passed various labour laws, including the [[October 11]], [[1946]] act establishing [[occupational medicine]]. |
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[[Paul Ramadier]]'s Socialist government then crushed the [[Malagasy Uprising of 1947]], killing up to 40,000 people. Ramadier also accepted the terms of the [[Marshall Plan]] and excluded the five Communist ministers (among whom the vice-Premier, [[Maurice Thorez]], head of the PCF) during the [[May 1947 crisis]]{{ndash}} an event which simultaneously occurred in [[History of Italy|Italy]]. This exclusion put an end to the [[Three-parties]] alliance between the PCF, the SFIO and the Christian-Democrat [[Popular Republican Movement]] (MRP), which had been initiated after [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s resignation in 1946. |
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[[Jules Moch]] (SFIO), Interior Minister of [[Robert Schuman]]'s cabinet, re-organized in December 1947 the ''[[Groupes mobiles de réserve]]'' (GMR) anti-riot police (created during [[Vichy France|Vichy]]), renamed ''[[Compagnies républicaines de sécurité]]'' (CRS), in order to crush the insurrectionary strikes started at the [[Renault]] factory in [[Boulogne-Billancourt]] by anarchists and Trotskyists. This repression split the CGT, leading to the spin-off ''[[Force Ouvrière]]'' (FO), headed by [[Léon Jouhaux]]. |
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The Three-Parties alliance was succeeded by the [[Third Force (France)|Third Force]] (1947-1951), a coalition gathering the SFIO, the [[UDSR]] center-right party, the Radicals, the MRP and other centrist politicians, opposed both to the Communist and the [[Gaullist]] movement. The Third Force was also supported by the conservative [[National Centre of Independents and Peasants]] (CNIP), which succeeded in having its most popular figure, [[Antoine Pinay]], named president of the Council in 1952, a year after the dissolving of the Third Force coalition. |
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=== The Algerian War === |
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When French Generals threatened [[Pierre Pflimlin]]'s government with a [[May 1958 crisis|coup in May 1958]], leading to the recall of [[Charles de Gaulle]] to power in the turmoil of the [[Algerian War]] (1954-62), the Radicals and the SFIO supported his return and the establishment of the semi-presidential regime of the [[Fifth Republic]]. On the left, however, various personalities opposed de Gaulle's come-back, seen as an authoritarian threat. Those included [[François Mitterrand]], who was minister of [[Guy Mollet]]'s Socialist government, [[Pierre Mendès-France]] (a Young Turk and former Prime Minister), [[Alain Savary]] (also a member of the [[SFIO]] Socialist party), the [[Communist Party (France)|Communist Party]], etc. The philosopher [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], famous [[existentialism|existentialist]] author, was quoted as saying “I would rather vote for God.” Mendès-France and Savary, opposed to their respective parties' support to de Gaulle, would form together, in 1960, the ''[[Parti socialiste autonome]]'' (PSA, Socialist Autonomous Party), ancestor of the ''[[Parti socialiste unifié]]'' (PSU, Unified Socialist Party). |
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Although Guy Mollet's government had enacted repressive policies against the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN), most of the left, including the [[personalist]] movement which expressed itself in ''[[Esprit (magazine)|Esprit]]'', opposed the [[Use of torture during the Algerian war|systematic use of torture by the French Army]]. Anti-colonialists and [[anti-militarist]]s signed the [[Manifesto of the 121]], published in ''[[L'Express]]'' in 1960. Although the use of torture quickly became well-known and was opposed by the left-wing opposition, the French state repeatedly denied its employment, [[censorship in France|censoring]] more than 250 books, newspapers and films (in [[metropolitan France]] alone) which dealt with the subject (and 586 in Algeria).<ref name="Diplo"> [http://mondediplo.com/2001/04/04algeriatorture COLONIALISM THROUGH THE SCHOOL BOOKS - The hidden history of the Algerian war], ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]'', April 2001 {{en icon}}/{{fr icon}} </ref> [[Henri Alleg]]'s 1958 book, ''La Question'', [[Boris Vian]]'s ''The Deserter'', [[Jean-Luc Godard]]'s 1960 film ''[[Le Petit Soldat]]'' (released in 1963) and [[Gillo Pontecorvo]]'s ''[[The Battle of Algiers (film)|The Battle of Algiers]]'' (1966) were famous examples of such censorship. A confidential report of the [[ICRC]] (International Committee of the Red Cross) leaked to ''[[Le Monde]]'' newspaper confirmed the allegations of torture made by the opposition to the war, represented in particular by the [[French Communist Party]] (PCF) and other [[anti-militarism|anti-militarist]] circles. Although many left-wing activists, including famous [[existentialism|existentialist]]s writers [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Albert Camus]], and historian [[Pierre Vidal-Naquet]], denounced without exception the use of torture, the French government was itself headed in 1957 by the general secretary of the SFIO, [[Guy Mollet]]. In general, the SFIO supported the colonial wars during the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] (1947-54), starting with the crushing of the [[Madagascar revolt]] in 1947 by the socialist government of [[Paul Ramadier]]. |
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== Fifth Republic == |
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{{see|May 1968|Unified Socialist Party|110 Propositions for France|Plural Left}} |
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{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}} |
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== Today == |
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== References == |
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{{reflist}} |
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[[th:กะอฺบะหฺ]] |
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== Bibliography == |
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* Becker, J.-J. & Candar, G. (dir.), ''Histoire des gauches en France'', 2 vol., éditions La Découverte, 2004. |
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* Touchard, J., ''La gauche en France depuis 1900'', Seuil, 1977. |
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* Lefranc, G., ''Le Mouvement socialiste sous la IIIème République'', Payot, 1963. |
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[[zh:克尔白]] |
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* Berstein, S., ''Histoire du parti radical'', 2 vol., Presses de la fondation nationale des sciences politiques, 1980-1982 |
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== See also == |
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*[[Anarchism in France]] |
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*[[Feminism in France]] |
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*[[History of Socialism]] |
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*[[Politics of France]] |
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{{Socialism by state}} |
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[[Category:Political history of France]] |
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[[Category:Left-wing parties in France]] |
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[[Category:History of socialism]] |
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[[fr:Histoire de la gauche française de 1919 à 1939]] |
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Revision as of 23:45, 13 October 2008
The Kaaba (Arabic: الكعبة Template:ArabDIN; IPA: ['kɑʕbɑ] or IPA: ['kæʕbæ])[1] "Cube" is a cuboidal building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the most sacred site in Islam.[2] The building is at least thousands of years old, and according to Islamic tradition, dates back to the time of Abraham (Ibrahim). It is towards the Kaaba which all Muslims around the world face during prayer, no matter where they are on Earth.
The building has a mosque built around it, the al-Masjid al-Haram. One of the Five Pillars of Islam is that every Muslim who is able to do so, must travel to Mecca at least once in their lifetime to perform the Hajj pilgrimage, which includes a series of rituals. Multiple parts of the Hajj require that the pilgrims walk several times around the Kaaba in a counter-clockwise direction. This circumnambulation, the Tawaf, is also performed by pilgrims during the Umrah (lesser pilgrimage).[2] However, the most dramatic times are during the Hajj, when two million pilgrims simultaneously gather to circle the building on the same day.
Location and physical attributes
The Kaaba is a large masonry structure roughly the shape of a cube. It is made of granite from the hills near Mecca, and stands upon a 25 cm (10 in) marble base, which projects outwards about 30 cm (1 ft).[2] It is approximately 13.10 m (42.98 ft) high, with sides measuring 11.03 m (36.19 ft) by 12.62 m (41.40 ft).[3][4] The four corners of the Kaaba roughly face the four points of the compass.[2] In the eastern corner of the Kaaba is the Ruknu l-Aswad "Black Stone" or al-Ħajaru l-Aswad, possibly a meteorite remnant; at the northern corner is the Ruknu l-ˤĪrāqī "The Iraqi corner". The western corner is the Ruknu sh-Shāmī "the Levantine corner" and the southern is Ruknu l-Yamanī "the Yemeni corner".[2][4]
The Kaaba is covered by a black silk curtain known as the kiswah, which is replaced yearly.[5][6] About two-thirds of the way up runs a band of gold-embroidered calligraphy with Qur'anic text, including the Islamic declaration of faith, the Shahadah.
In modern times, entrance to the inside of the Kaaba is generally not permitted except for certain rare occasions and for very limited numbers of guests. When open, the Kaaba is entered through a door set 2 m (7 ft) above the ground on the north-eastern wall of the Kaaba, which acts as the façade.[2] There is a wooden staircase on wheels, usually stored in the mosque between the arch-shaped gate of Banū Shaybah and the well of Zamzam. Inside the Kaaba, there is a marble floor. The interior walls are clad with marble halfway to the roof; tablets with Qur'anic inscriptions are inset in the marble. The top part of the walls are covered with a green cloth decorated with gold embroidered Qur'anic verses. Caretakers perfume the marble cladding with scented oil, the same oil used to anoint the Black Stone outside.
Although not directly connected to it, there is a semi-circular wall opposite the north-west wall of the Kaaba known as the hatīm. It is 90 cm (35 in) in height and 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length, and is composed of white marble. The space between the hatīm and the Kaaba was for a time belonging to the Kaaba itself, and so is generally not entered during the tawaf (ritual circumambulation). It is also thought by some that this space bears the graves of Abu Simbel, prophet Ishmael and his mother Hagar.[2]
Muslims throughout the world face the Kaaba during prayers, which are five times a day. For most places around the world, coordinates for Mecca suffice. Worshippers in the the Sacred Masjid pray in concentric circles radiating outwards around the Kaaba.
Black Stone
The Black Stone is a significant feature of the Kaaba, believed by Muslims to date back to the time of Adam and Eve.[7] Located on the eastern corner of the Kaaba, it is about 30 cm (12 inches) in diameter and surrounded by a silver frame. Hajj pilgrims often attempt to kiss the Stone as Muhammad once did.[8] Because of the large crowds, this is not always possible, and so as pilgrims walk around the Kaaba, they are to point to the Stone on each circuit.[9]
History
Before Islam
As little is known of the history of the Kaaba, there are various opinions regarding its formation and significance.
The early Arabian population consisted primarily of warring nomadic tribes. When they did converge peacefully, it was usually under the protection of religious practices.[10] Writing in the Encyclopedia of Islam, Wensinck identifies Mecca with a place called Macoraba mentioned by Ptolemy. His text is believed to date from the second century AD, before the rise of Islam,[11] and described it as a foundation in southern Arabia, built around a sanctuary. The area probably did not start becoming an area of religious pilgrimage until around the year 500 AD. It was around then that the Quraysh tribe (into which Muhammad was later born) took control of it, and made an agreement with the local Kinana Bedouins for control.[12] The sanctuary itself, located in a barren valley surrounded by mountains, was probably built at the location of the water source today known as the Zamzam Well, an area of considerable religious significance.
Eiichi[13] contends that there were multiple such "Kaaba" sanctuaries in Arabia at one time, but this is the only one built of stone. The others also allegedly had counterparts to the Black Stone. There was a "red stone", the deity of the south Arabian city of Ghaiman, and the "white stone" in the Kaaba of al-Abalat (near the city of Tabala, south of Mecca). Grunebaum in Classical Islam points out that the experience of divinity of that time period was often associated with stone fetishes, mountains, special rock formations, or "trees of strange growth."[14]
According to Karen Armstrong, in her book Islam: A Short History, the Kaaba was dedicated to Hubal, a Nabatean deity, and contained 360 idols which either represented the days of the year,[15] or were effigies of the Arabian pantheon. Once a year, tribes from all around the Arabian peninsula, be they Christian or pagan, would converge on Mecca to perform the Hajj.
To keep the peace among the perpetually warring tribes, Mecca was declared a sanctuary where no violence was allowed within 20 miles (32 km) of the Kaaba. This combat-free zone allowed Mecca to thrive not only as a place of pilgrimage, but also as a trading center.[16] According to the Boston Globe, the Kaaba was a shrine for the Daughters of God (al-Lat, al-Uzza, and Manat) and Hubal.[17]
The Kaaba was thought to be at the center of the world with the Gate of Heaven directly above it. The Kaaba marked the location where the divine world intersected with the mundane, and the embedded Black Stone was a further symbol of this as a meteorite that had fallen from the sky and linked heaven and earth.[18]
According to Sarwar,[19] about four hundred years before the birth of Muhammad, a man named "Amr bin Lahyo bin Harath bin Amr ul-Qais bin Thalaba bin Azd bin Khalan bin Babalyun bin Saba", who was descended from Qahtan and king of Hijaz (the northwestern section of Saudi Arabia, which encompassed the cities of Mecca and Medina), had placed a Hubal idol onto the roof of the Kaaba, and this idol was one of the chief deities of the ruling Quraysh tribe. The idol was made of red agate, and shaped like a human, but with the right hand broken off and replaced with a golden hand. When the idol was moved inside the Kaaba, it had seven arrows in front of it, which were used for divination.[20]
Patricia Crone disagrees with most academic historians on most issues concerning the history of early Islam, including the history of the Kaaba. In Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam, Crone writes that she believes that the identification of Macoraba with the Kaaba is false, and that Macoraba was a town in southern Arabia in what was then known as Arabia Felix.[21]
Many accounts, including Muslim accounts, and some accounts written by academic historians, stress the power and importance of the pre-Islamic Mecca.[weasel words] They depict it as a city grown rich on the proceeds of the spice trade. Crone believes that this is an exaggeration and that Makkan may only have been an outpost trading with nomads for leather, cloth, and camel butter. Crone argues that if Mecca had been a well-known center of trade, it would have been mentioned by later authors such as Procopius, Nonnosus, and the Syrian church chroniclers writing in Syriac. However, the town is absent from any geographies or histories written in the last three centuries before the rise of Islam.[22]
According to The Encyclopaedia Britannica, "before the rise of Islam it was revered as a sacred sanctuary and was a site of pilgrimage."[23] According to the German historian Eduard Glaser, the name "Kaaba" may have been related to the southern Arabian or Ethiopian word "mikrab", signifying a temple.[11] Again, Crone disputes this etymology.
Islamic tradition
According to the Qur'an, the Kaaba was built by Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael).[24] Islamic traditions assert that the Kaaba "reflects" a house in heaven called al-Baytu l-Maʿmur[25] (Arabic: البيت المعمور) and that it was first built by the first man, Adam. Ibrahim and Ismail rebuilt the Kaaba on the old foundations. [26]
At the time of Muhammad
At the time of Muhammad (570-632 AD), his tribe the Quraysh was in charge of the Kaaba, which was at that time a shrine to numerous Arabian tribal gods. Muhammad earned the enmity of his tribe by claiming their shrine for the religion of Islam that he preached. He wanted the Kaaba to be dedicated to the worship of God alone, and all the other statues evicted. The Quraysh persecuted and harassed him continuously, and he and his followers eventually migrated to Medina in 622.
After this pivotal migration, or Hijra, the Muslim community became a political and military force. In 630, Muhammad and his followers returned to Mecca as conqueror, and he destroyed the 360 idols in and around the Kaaba.[28][29] While destroying each idol, Muhammad recited
| Quran |
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which says "Truth has arrived and falsehood has perished for falsehood is by its nature bound to perish."[28][29]
The Kaaba was re-dedicated as an Islamic house of worship, and henceforth, the annual pilgrimage was to be a Muslim rite, the Hajj.[30]
Islamic histories also mention a reconstruction of the Kaaba around 600. A story found in Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasūl Allāh (as reconstructed and translated by Guillaume) shows Muhammad settling a quarrel between Meccan clans as to which clan should set the Black Stone cornerstone in place. His solution was to have all the clan elders raise the cornerstone on a cloak, and then Muhammad set the stone into its final place with his own hands.[31][27][32] Ibn Ishaq says that the timber for the reconstruction of the Kaaba came from a Greek ship that had been wrecked on the Red Sea coast at Shu'ayba, and the work was undertaken by a Coptic carpenter called Baqum.[33]
It is also claimed by the Shīʿa that the Kaaba is the birth place of ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib, the fourth caliph and cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[30]
Since Muhammad's time
The Kaaba has been repaired and reconstructed many times since Muhammad's day.
Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, an early Muslim who ruled Mecca for many years between the death of ʿAli and the consolidation of Ummayad power, is said to have demolished the old Kaaba and rebuilt it to include the hatīm, a semi-circular wall now outside the Kaaba. He did so on the basis of a tradition (found in several hadith collections[34]) that the hatīm was a remnant of the foundations of the Abrahamic Kaaba, and that Muhammad himself had wished to rebuild so as to include it.
This structure was destroyed (or partially destroyed) in 683, during the war between al-Zubayr and Umayyad forces commanded by Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef. Al-Hajjaj used stone-throwing catapults against the Meccans. This episode has been depicted by many Muslim chroniclers as a black mark against the Ummayad caliph Yazid I, who ordered the campaign against Mecca. Yazid died in 683, the year his forces attacked the Hijaz.
The Ummayads under ʿAbdu l-Malik ibn Marwan finally reunited all the former Islamic possessions and ended the long civil war. In 693 he had the remnants of al-Zubayr's Kaaba razed, and rebuilt on the foundations set by the Quraysh.[35] The Kaaba returned to the cube shape it had taken during Muhammad's lifetime.
During the Hajj of 930, the Qarmatians attacked Mecca, defiled the Zamzam Well with the bodies of pilgrims and stole the Black Stone, removing it to the oasis region of Eastern Arabia known as al-Aḥsāʾ, where it remained until the Umayyad ransomed it back in 952 CE.
Apart from repair work, the basic shape and structure of the Kaaba have not changed since then.[36]
Cleaning
The building is opened twice a year for a ceremony known as "the cleaning of the Kaaba." This ceremony takes place roughly fifteen days before the start of the month of Ramadan and the same period of time before the start of the annual pilgrimage.
The keys to the Kaaba are held by the Banī Shaybat (بني شيبة) tribe. Members of the tribe greet visitors to the inside of the Kaaba on the occasion of the cleaning ceremony. A small number of dignitaries and foreign diplomats are invited to participate in the ceremony.[citation needed] The governor of Mecca leads the honored guests who ritually clean the structure, using simple brooms. Washing of the Kaaba is done with a mixture of Zamzam and rosewater.[37]
Qibla and prayer
For any reference point on the Earth, the qibla is the direction to the Kaaba. Muslims are ordered to face this direction during prayer (Qur'an 2:143-144). While it may appear to some non-Muslims that Muslims worship the Kaaba, it is simply the focal point for prayer.
Like Jews, the earliest Muslims prayed facing Jerusalem. According to Islamic tradition, when Muhammad was praying in the al-Qiblatain Masjid (in Medina), he was ordered by God to change the qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca and the Kaaba. Various theories are advanced as to the reason for the change.
Muslim groups in the United States differ as to how the qibla should be oriented - some believe that the direction should be calculated as a straight line drawn on a flat map, like the familiar Mercator projection of the globe; others say that the direction is determined by the shortest line on the globe of the earth, or a great circle. At times this controversy has led to heated disputes. Flat-map Muslims in the United States pray east and slightly south; great-circle Muslims face in a north-easterly direction. In both cases, the exact orientation will vary from city to city.[38]
Qibla compasses are available that tell Muslims which direction to face no matter where they are. This method requires one to align the north arrow with a particular point on the compass corresponding to one's location. Once so aligned, one simply turns toward the direction indicated by the compass's qibla pointer, which is often in the shape of a minaret. "Qibla numbers" for various locations are listed in an accompanying booklet and also indexed online.[39]
Notes
- ^ Also known as Template:ArabDIN (الكعبة المشرًّفة "The Noble Kaʿbah), Template:ArabDIN (البيت العتيق "The Primordial House"), or Template:ArabDIN (البيت الحرام "The Sacred House")
- ^ a b c d e f g Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of Islam IV p. 317
- ^ Peterson, Andrew (1996). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. London: Routledge.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ a b Hawting, G.R; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an p. 76
- ^ "'House of God' Kaaba gets new cloth". The Age Company Ltd. 2003. Retrieved 2006-08-17.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ "The Kiswa - (Kaaba Covering)". Al-Islaah Publications. Retrieved 2006-08-17.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ SaudiCities - The Saudi Experience. "Makkah - The Holy Mosque:The Black Stone". Retrieved August 13.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Elliott, Jeri (1992). Your Door to Arabia. ISBN 0-473-01546-3.
- ^ Mohamed, Mamdouh N. (1996). Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z. Amana Publications. ISBN 0-915957-54-x.
- ^ Grunebaum, p. 18
- ^ a b Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of Islam IV p. 318 (1927, 1978)
- ^ Grunebaum, p. 19
- ^ Imoti, Eiichi. "The Ka'ba-i Zardušt", Orient, XV (1979), The Society for Near Eastern Studies in Japan, pp. 65-69.
- ^ Grunebaum, p. 24
- ^ Karen Armstrong (2000,2002). Islam: A Short History. p. 11. ISBN 0-8129-6618-x.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help); Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Armstrong, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 221-222
- ^ "Ask the Globe". Boston Globe. April 23, 1999.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Armstrong, Jerusalem, p. 221
- ^ Hafiz Ghulam Sarwar. Muhammad the Holy Prophet. pp. 18–19.
- ^ Brother Andrew. "Hubal, the moon god of the Kaba". bible.ca. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Crone, Patricia (2004). Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) pp. 134-137 - ^ Crone, Patricia (2004). Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) p. 137 - ^ Britannica 2002 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM, "Ka'bah."
- ^ "AL-BAQARA (THE COW)". University of Southern California. Retrieved 2008-01-25.
- ^ Hajj-e-Baytullah. "Baytullah - The House of Allah".
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah, vol. 1, pp. 58-66
- ^ a b University of Southern California. "The Prophet of Islam - His Biography". Retrieved August 12.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b Hamali, Mohamed Hashim (31 My - 6 June 2001). "Islam, iconography and the Taliban". Al-Ahram Weekly Online. No. 536. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b "Conquest of Makkah". Compendium of Muslim Texts. University of Southern California. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
- ^ a b The Book of History, a History of All Nations From the Earliest Times to the Present. Viscount Bryce (Introduction). The Grolier Society.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Guillaume, A. (1955). The Life of Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) pp. 84-87 - ^ Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, translated by Issam Diab (1979). "Muhammad's Birth and Forty Years prior to Prophethood". Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Memoirs of the Noble Prophet. Retrieved 2007-05-04.
- ^ Cyril Glasse, New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 245. Rowman Altamira, 2001. ISBN 0759101906
- ^ Sahih Bukhari 1506, 1508;Sahih Muslim 1333
- ^ Sahih Bukhari 1509; Sahih Muslim 1333
- ^ Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. The Rituals of Hajj and ‘Umrah, Mizan, Al-Mawrid
- ^ Islam Online.net - Saudi Arabia Readies for Hajj Emergencies (December 29 2005), Retrieved November 30 2006.
- ^ "A Sine on the Road to Makkah". American Scientist. 2001. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
- ^ "Numbers for the Islamic Qibla Compasses 1999 Update (most recent)". Retrieved 2008-02-03.
References
- Peterson, Andrew (1996). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture London: Routledge.
- Hawting, G.R; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
- Elliott, Jeri (1992). Your Door to Arabia. ISBN 0-473-01546-3.
- Mohamed, Mamdouh N. (1996). Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z. Amana Publications. ISBN 0-915957-54-x.
- Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of Islam IV
- Karen Armstrong (2000,2002). Islam: A Short History. ISBN 0-8129-6618-x.
- Crone, Patricia (2004). Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias.
- [1915] The Book of History, a History of All Nations From the Earliest Times to the Present, Viscount Bryce (Introduction), The Grolier Society.
- Guillaume, A. (1955). The Life of Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Grunebaum, G. E. von (1970). Classical Islam: A History 600 A.D. - 1258 A.D. Aldine Publishing Company. ISBN 202-15016-X.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: length (help)
External links
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