Jump to content

Ezhava

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 24.155.69.39 (talk) at 13:39, 7 September 2008. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Ezhava
File:Guru-palpu.jpgFile:Kumaran Asan Stamp.jpgFile:R ssnkar.jpgFile:Achuthanandan.jpg
Sri Narayana Guru, Dr Palpu, Kumaran Asan, R. Sankar, Itty Achudan,V.S. Achuthanandan
Total population
7,300,000 (22.91% of Malayali Population)[citation needed]
Regions with significant populations
Languages
Malayalam
Religion
Hinduism, Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Billava

The Ezhavas are the largest Hindu community in Kerala and Tulu Nadu. They are known by different names in different parts of Kerala. In Malabar they are called Thiyyas, while in Tulunadu they are known as Billavas. Ezhavas were traditionally involved in toddy tapping and brewing. Even these days, a sizable number of illegal hooch makers are from the Ezhava community. Many prominent members of this community are in prison due to hooch making. Ezhava dynasties such as the Izhathu Mannanars were also existed in Kerala.[1][2][3][4] The Chekavar, a warrior section[5][6] within the community, were part of the militias of local chieftains and kings. Some were also the experts of Kalari Payattu.[7]

Etymology and theories of origin

Etymologically, the word Ezhava or Thiyya can be traced to many words. The dominant theory is one that suggests a Sri Lankan and hence Buddhist connection. Ezhavas are supposedly descendants of Buddhists (from Sri Lanka or emissaries from the Magadhan empire) and local converts.

According to Ezhava folk songs, the Ezhavas were the progeny of four bachelors that the king of Sri Lanka sent to Kerala at the request of the Chera king Bhaskara Ravi Varma, in the 1st Century AD. These men were sent, ostensibly, to set up coconut farming in Kerala. Another version of the story says that the Sri Lankan King sent eight martial families to Kerala at the request of a Chera king to quell a civil war that had erupted in Kerala against him.[8][9][10]

According to historian C. V. Kunjuraman, the two gods of the Ezhavas, Cittan and Arattan, are in fact Buddhist Sidhan and Arhatan from Buddhism. Some others argue that ezhava god Arattan is Lord Buddha itself. [11] T. K. Veluppillai, the author of The Travancore State Manual, believes that during Buddhist ascendancy in Kerala, before the arrival of the Tulu Brahmins, "the Ezhavas enjoyed great prosperity and power" (II, 845). However, he also says that it is very unlikely that the Ezhavas came from Sri Lanka and spread all over Kerala; instead they were the mainstream of Munda-Dravidian immigrants who left Tamil Nadu in the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries to avoid persecution at the hands of their political enemies.[12]

Mahakavi Kumaranasan, whose works such as Nalini, Leela, Karuna and Chandala Bhikshuki extol Buddhist ideals, lamented at times in his verses about the past glory of the Sinhalese, or the natives of Srilanka, whom he considered to be the forefathers of present day Ezhavas.[13]

This Buddhist tradition, and the refusal to give it up, pushed the Ezhavas to an outcast role within the greater Brahminic society.[14][15] Nevertheless, this tradition is still evident as Ezhavas show greater interest in the moral, non-ritualistic, and non-dogmatic aspects of the religion rather than the theological.[14]

Some historians argue that the word ilavar is derived from Villavar which means archers who were a warrior caste among the Dravidians who ruled most of India, along with their allies Meenavars (fishermen) during ancient times.(Villu, Proto-Dravidian word, means bow) Villavars founded the Chera kingdom and the Chera king was addressed as Villavar Kon.[16][17]

Genetic studies show that the allelic distribution of Ezhavas in a bi-dimensional plot (correspondence analysis based on HLA-A, -B, and -C frequencies), showing a rather strong East Eurasian element due to its proximity to the Mongol population in the same plot.[18].

Past occupations

Meanings and origin of word Chekavan
The Alummootil Meda. A grand manor and outhouses belonging to Ezhava aristocracy from history. Location: Mavelikara.

Ezhavas were employed as ayurvedic physicians, warriors, Kalari trainers and traders. They were also undertook jobs like toddy tapping, brewing, etc. Some Ezhavas remained wealthy and some others became masters in various fields such ayurveda, martial arts (Kalaripayattu, Varma Kalari, etc.), astrology, Siddha, Manthravaadam, spirituality, trading, Traditional Toxology etc. Also, there were many distillers and weavers from this community.[19][20][21]

Martial traditions

Folklore and written records indicate that the Ezhavas were also a martial class.[19][20][21] Ezhava folk songs, the Vadakkan Pattukal, composed about 400 hundred years ago, described military exploits of Ezhava heroes. Ezhavas served in the armed forces of all important kings of the region, such as Zamorins of Calicut, and the Kings of Travancore and Cochin.[22] [19][20]. Many were trainers of the martial art Kalaripayattu[citation needed]. As per Hortus Malabaricus by J. Heniger, Ezhavas (otherwise called silgos), tree climbers, also bound to wars and arms. Some Ezhavas also served to teach Nairs in fencing school[citation needed]. Its believed that South Indian Hindu God, Lord Ayyappan, was trained in an ezhava Kalari of Cheerappanchira family. Kalari Panickers from an Ezhava tharavaad based at Kulathoor were trainers of famous Ettuveetil Pillamars, and their descendants have looked after the Chamundi Devi (Kalari devatha) temple at Thozhuvancode, Thiruvananthapuram.[19][20][21] Syrian Christians, allowed by the Hindu leaders to have their own private armies, recruited Ezhava members due in part to this tradition.[23] Famous warriors such as Unniyarcha and Aromal Chekavar were Ezhavas.

Chekavar

A warrior section among the community were called Chekavar/Chekavan/Chevakan/Chekon [5] [24]. Vadakkan Pattukal describes talents of chekors who formed militia of local cheftians and kings. It was also the title bestowed upon experts of Kalari Payattu.[25] As per Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai's Studies in Kerala history, they were decedents of or Villors or Villavar or Billavars who were warriors and bravos. They were trained under Maravars , a Dravidian martial tribe, accepted Buddhism in later stage. Villu(in Tamil and malayalm) or Billu(in Tulu), means bow and it was the Symbol of Chera kingdom. Thus as per his opinion, Chera kings were actually villavars. However, they were degraded after arrival of Brahmins and after establishing Chatur Varna system. Thereafter, they were accredited as chekavars or chevakars.Vadakkan Pattukal, collection of Malayalam Ballads of medieval origin present saga of chekava heros.[26]

Ayurvedic vaidyars

Itty Achudan Ayurvedic physician

There were in fact several acclaimed Ezhava Ayurvedic scholars. The first Malayalam book published by the Dutch in 1675, titled Hortus Indicus Malabaricus, speaks in its preface about a Vaidyar (doctor) Karappuram Kadakkarappally Kollattu Veettil Itty Achudan (of present-day Alappuzha district), a reputed vaidyar of the community as the main force behind the book and he is the one who edited the book to reach its present form. Famous Ezhava Vaidyar Sri C.R.Kesavan Vaidyar founded of Chandrika.[citation needed] He was awarded the title of Vaidyaratnam by K.C. Manavikraman Zamorin of Kozhikode in 1953. Famous Thirumanakkal Vvaidyasala in Idukki and Kannur Ayurvedic Multi Speciality Hospital in Wayanad are owned by Ezhava vaidyars. Famous Ayurvedic scholar from Kochi New Udaya Pharmacy and Ayurvedic Laboratories (Nupal) were established in 1960 by Sri N. K. Padmanabhan Vaidyar, who hails from a well-known traditional Ayurvedic family[citation needed]. Their product kamilari is now famous among patients having liver diseases. Vallabhassery Ayurvedic Pharmaceutical Firm established in the Ayurvedic field since 1833 by Vallabhasseril family of Thiruvalla.

One of the early translations of Ashtanga Hridaya, a celebrated Sanskrit treatise on Ayurveda, in Malayalam was done by an Ezhava physician, Kayikkara Govindan Vaidyar. Kuzhuppully and Pokkanchery families in Thrissur and Calicut respectively are traditional families of Ayurveda acharyans. Cholayil family is one of the most famous and respected Ezhava Ayurvedic families in Kerala. Their beauty products like Cuticura and Medimix (soap) are very popular across India. Ezhava physicians were the chief Ayurvedic physicians of the Travancore Royal family. Venmanakkal family (related to the Chavercode family) was the first family to learn Ayurveda from the Pali language in addition to the Ayurvedic knowledge from Sanskrit. Uracheril Gurukkal instructed Herman Gundert in the field of Sanskrit and Ayurveda, and Uppot kannan, who wrote interpretation of Yogamrutham (Ayurvedic text in Sanskrit by Ashtavaidyans), were also acclaimed Ezhava Ayurvedic scholars. Kelikkodan Ayyappan Vaidyar (Kottakkal) is one of the pioneer in the traditional Ayurvedic physician who is an eminent personality in Marma Chikithsa. Many from the community were Kottaram Vaidyan (palace physicians) of important kings in the region[19][20][21]

Traditional toxicology

Many Ezhava families were practitioners of Visha chikitsa (toxicology) for decades, treating poison from bites of snakes, scorpions, etc.[citation needed] This has been discontinued by many of these families now.[citation needed]

Other traditional occupations

Other traditional occupations of the community included coconut trading[citation needed], and making toddy[27], which was both widely consumed alcoholic drink, and used in Ayurvedic medicine.[citation needed] A few sections of the community were also involved in brewing arrack.[citation needed]

Sree Narayana Guru preached against both of these professions and as a result, a number discontinued the practices.[28][29]

Culture

Muthappan Theyyam as Lord Vishnu & Lord Shiva
File:Mayilppeeli thookkam.jpg
Arjuna Nrutham performers in Guru Jayanthi procession at Allappuzha
Ezhava/Channar Musicians from the 19th century: Performing the traditional "Villadichaampattu"

Theyyam or kaliyattam or theyyatom

In northern Kerala, Theyyam is a popular ritual dance. The headgear and other ornamental decorations are spectacular in sheer size and appearance. This particular dance form is also known as Kaaliyattam. The main deities of Ezhavas include Vayanattu Kulavan, Kathivannur Veeran, Poomaruthan, Muthappan.[30][31]

Arjuna nritham or mayilpeeli thookkam

"Arjuna nritham" (the dance of Arjuna) is a ritual art performed by men of Ezhava community and is prevalent in the Bhagavathy temples of south Kerala, mainly in Kollam, Alappuzha and Kottayam districts. In the epic Mahabharatha, Arjuna was the most valiant of the five heroic brothers, the Pandavas, and was also a renowned singer and dancer and is said to have propitiated goddess Bhadrakali by a devotional presentation.

Arjuna nritham is also called "Mayilpeeli Thookkam" as the costume includes a characteristic garment made of mayilppeeli (peacock feathers). This garment is worn around the waist in a similar fashion as the "uduthukettu" of Kathakali. The various dance movements are closely similar to Kalarippayattu techniques. The performers have their faces painted green and wear distinctive headgears. The all night performance of the dance form is usually presented solo or in pairs.

The strictly rhythm based songs are called "Mayil Pattukal" or "Kavithangal" and deal with various themes of the Puranas (ancient Hindu scriptures). Each "Kavitham" is composed to suit a specific rhythm. Before each song, the dancers explain the intricacies of the particular rhythm about to be employed and how this rhythm is translated into dance movements. Percussion instruments like the chenda, maddalam, talachenda and ilathalam (cymbal) form the musical accompaniment.[30]

Poorakkali

Poorakkali is a folk dance prevalent among the Ezhavas of Malabar, usually performed in Bhagavathy temples as a ritual offering during the month of Meenam (March - April). Poorakkali requires specially trained and highly experienced dancers, trained in Kalaripayattu, a system of physical exercise formerly in vogue in Kerala. Standing round a traditional lamp, the performers dance in eighteen different stages and rhythms, each phase called a niram.[30]

Parichamuttu kali

Parichamuttu kali is a martial folk-dance prevalent among the Ezhavas around the Alappuzha, Kollam, Pathanamthitta, Kottayam, Ernakulam, Palghat and Malappuram districts. It is also performed by Christians and some other Hindu communities. Its origins date back to when Kalaripayattu, the physical exercise of swordplay and defence, was in vogue in Kerala. The performers dance with swords and shields in their hands, following the movements of sword fight, leaping forward, stepping back and moving round, all the time striking with the swords and defending with shields.[30]

Makachuttu

Makachuttu art is popular among Ezhavas in Thiruvananthapuram and Chirayinkizhu taluks and in Kilimanoor, Pazhayakunnummal and Thattathumala regions. In this, a group of eight performers, two each, twin around each other like serpents and rise up, battling with sticks. The techniques are repeated several times. Sandalwood paste on the forehead, a red towel round the head, red silk around the waist and bells round the ankles form the costume. This is a combination of snake worship and Kalarippayattu.[30][31]

Aivar kali

Literally, Aivarkali means the play of the five sets. This was a ritualistic art form performed in almost all important temples of Kerala. Today it is found in central Kerala. This is also known as Pandavarkali, which means the play of the Pandavas, (the five heroes of the Mahabharatha), and is also performed Asari, Moosari, Karuvan, Thattan and Kallasari communities.

This ritualistic dance is performed beneath a decorated pandal with a nilavilakku at its centre. The five or more performers with their leader called Kaliachan enter the performance area after a ritualistic bath, with sandalwood paste over their foreheads, dressed in white dhoti, and with a towel wrapped around their heads.[30]

Customs

File:VaranappallyFamily.jpg
Varanappally Family-A traditional Ezhava House with Sarpa Kavu

Family system

Main article: Tharavadu
Main article: Marumakkathayam

Ezhavas followed Tharavadu, a system of joint family setup practised by some Malayalee communities. The family live together as a mother, her brothers and younger sisters, and her children. The oldest male member, known as the Karanavar or Mooppar, is the head of the household and managed the family estate. Each Tharavadu has a unique name. As joint families grew and established independent settlements, the branches modified the names in a such way that the main Tharavadu names remained identifiable, while each Sakha (or Thavazhi or Thay Vazhi meaning Through Mother) had a distinct name.

For Ezhavas in Travancore and Malabar, their Tharavad name were identified through their mother's house (Thavazhi) but some other families in the Cochin area (excluding Kanayannur Taluk) were identified through by their father's Tharavadu. The system of inheritance were matrilinear and were know as Marumakkathayam, which has now given way to Makkathayam or patrilinear inheritance.

Snake worship

Main article: Sarpa Kavu
Main article: Snake worship

The snake worship (Nagaradhana) was prevalent among many Ezhava families all over Kerala[citation needed], but was most common among Malayalee and Tulu Billavas of North Malabar and Tulu Nadu. "Sarpa Kavu" (meaning "Abode of the Snake God"), a small traditional forest (mostly man made) of green pockets, would have idols of snake gods worshipped. For Ezhavas, Billavas and other similar communities, these sacred forests are found in any corner of the compound except the eastern side while other communities like the Nairs have this in the southwest corner of the Tharavadu[32] [33].

Kuruthi

Kuruthi was a ritual performed in temples, especially Devi, Bhagavathy, Durga temples. Although this is found among many communities, it was very common with Ezhavas. Animals are sacrificed as part of the ritual. In southern central Kerala, Kuruthy was performed before padayani and Mudiyet. In North Kerala, it was performed with Theyyam and Pana. Sree Narayana Guru opposed the animal sacrifice, leading to the decline of this ritual.[32]

Thali kettu kalyanam (mock marriage ceremony)

Main article: Kettu Kalyanam

A thali kettu kalyanam or a mock marriage ceremony was prevalent among some rich Ezhavas (or Pramanis ). A thaali (a gold necklace tied around the bride's neck) tying rite took place before the onset of puberty. During this ceremony, the girl was forced to marry a man (strictly from the same community unlike other castes which followed this custom) whose horoscopes matched. Because that man was simply her "mock" husband, he could leave her after the completion of the ritual. Sree Narayana Guru opposed this strongly and took the initiative to simplify marriage customs and celebrations.[32][34]

Surnames

Ezhavas do not normally use any distinct surnames. However, occupational surnames like Panicker, Asaan, Channar, Vaidyar, Mudalali, Chekavar, Chekavan, Chekon, Valiyachan,Manangath, Achan, Chanatty, Panikkathy, Chekothy, Thanpatty, Amma, Karanavar, Kutty, Thandan (mostly in Malabar), Thandar were fairly common till the early 20th century. Though rare some had even Pillai surname.Panicker,Thandar is still being used by Ezhavas in south Kerala. Some of these surnames like Asaan, Vaidyar, Mudalali, Valiyachan, Achan, Amma were also used by many other Hindu and Christian communities of Kerala.

Subcastes

The sub-divisions among south kerala ezhavas were Kollakkar or Channar Ezhavar, Malayalam Ezhavar (those earliest to Kerala), Nadi Ezhavar, Pachili Ezhavar (those who married from fishermen community), and Puzhakkar Ezhavar (menial servants of Malayalam Izhava). The Channar Izhavar claims superiority over other subdivisions. There were mainly 3 sub-castes among North Malabar ezhavas namely thiyya chone(chovan), pandi chon(Izhuvan) and velan kandi chon. [35]. The south malabar Thiyyas were subdivided into the Thiyya chon, Vaisya Thiyya(thekkan chon), and pandi chon(Izhuvan). However nowadays these sub-divisions are no more exist and even unherad of .

Position in society

Ezhavas were considered as avarnas by the clergy and the ruling elite[36] and were looked down upon by the savarna castes[37], with the result that they were in a state of abject poverty[citation needed]. Ezhava men and women, like any other non-Brahmin castes in Kerala, were not allowed to cover their upper part of their bodies and certain types of jewellery and footwear were forbidden[38], though the general Hindu population of Kerala did not consider covering the upper body as a necessity.[39] Ezhavas are classified as an other backward caste[40] by the Union government which gives them access to reserved government service jobs, and admission to educational institutions for financially backward among them.[41].

Spiritual and social movements

File:Kum1.jpg
A procession before Kumarakom Sree Narayana Jayanthi Boat race
Guru Jayanthi celebration at Gokaneswara Temple, Mangalore, Karnataka, India

The Ezhava community's largely undisputed acceptance of Sree Narayana Guru as their spiritual, social and intellectual mentor and guiding spirit adds a major and unifying facet to community integrity and identity today.[42][43] Gurudevan and his associates convinced Ezhavas to give up the practice of untouchability with respect to castes below their's and built a number of temples open to all.[44]

In 1896, a mammoth petition (with more than 13,000 persons signing it) was submitted to the government asking for the recognition of the right of the Ezhavas to enter the government service; the upper caste Hindus of the state prevailed upon the Maharajah not to concede the request. The outcome not looking to be promising, the Ezhava leadership threatened that they would convert en masse, rather than stay as helots of Hindu society. Diwan, Sir C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, realizing the imminent danger, prompted the Maharajah to issue Temple Entry Proclamation, which abolished the ban on lower-caste people from entering Hindu temples in the state of Travancore.[45]

The Vaikom Satyagraha (1924 - 25) was a satyagraha (movement) in Travancore against untouchability in the Hindu society. The movement was centered at the Shiva temple at Vaikom, near Kottayam. The Satyagraha aimed at securing freedom of movement for all sections of society through the public roads leading to the Sri Mahadevar Temple at Vaikom. The SNDP Yogam were in the forefront of this movement.

Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam(SNDP)

SNDP is organisation formed to propagate and promote the moral teaching and Dharma of Shree Narayana Guru. Dr. P. Palpu, a devotee of Sree Narayana, was one of the the founder. [46] According to the biography of Narayana Guru written by Moorkoth Kumaran, the organization was registered on 15th May, 1903 under Travancore Regulation 1 of 1063 (Indian Company Act IV 1882). Sree Narayana Guru was the Patron and life time President of the Yogam. Mahakavi Sri. Kumaranasan was the first General Secretary. [47] Kumaran Asan was the peerless pioneer among modern Malayalam poets. He was one of the dedicated disciples of Sree Narayana Guru. In fact the spiritual philosophy and the battle against caste that illumine Kumaran Asan’s poetry were inspired mainly by association with and inspiration from the great Guru.

Religious conversions

During different periods of history, sections of the Ezhava community converted to other religions.

Conversion to Christianity

A sizeable part of the Ezhava community, especially in central Travancore and in the High Ranges, embraced Christianity during the British rule, due to caste-based discrimination. In Kannur, Protestant missions started working in the first half of the 19th century, when the Basel German Evangelical Mission was founded by Dr. H. Gundert. Most of their converts were from the Thiyya community.

In 1921 an extensive effort to reach a thousand Ezhava families living in the coastal areas of Alappuzha and hilly area of Pathanamthitta was initiated by an independent committee, in relation with the CSI church. With Isabel Baker's (CMS Missionary) generous contribution, a school, hospital and a coir factory were established under the title Karappuram Mission in the Shertellai area and as a result, thousands of Ezhava families converted in areas of Alappuzha and Pathanamthitta to Christianity.[48]

Sree Narayana Guru decried the conversion since he said that they were made for materialistic or temporary benefits, convenience, or as an escape from discrimination and religious persecution. These principles formed the criteria for his support of conversions and re-conversions.[48]

Conversion to Sikhism in central Kerala

See also: Sikhism

During Mahatma Gandhi's 1922 Vaikom Satyagraha movement against untouchability, a few Akalis, an order of armed Sikhs, came to Vaikom in support of the demonstrators. After successfully completing the Satyagraha and after the Temple Entry Proclamation, some of the Akalis remained. Some Ezhava youth were attracted to the concepts of the Sikhism and as a result, joined the religion. Many Ezhavas were also prompted to join Sikhism after remarks by Ambedkar. However, after the significant growth of the Ezhava movement, many families later re-converted to Hinduism and the number of Sikh Ezhavas dwindled.

Similar communities

Billavas

Billava is a name of the caste found mainly in the coastal Karnataka and Kasargode districts of Kerala. They were engaged in martial arts (Garadi), toddy tapping, ayurvedic medicine and liquor business. This community has accepted Sree Narayana Guru as their spiritual guru.

Poojary

The Poojary are a sub-sect of the Billava community, located in the Dakshina Kannada district in Karnataka, a south Indian state. They had very important role in Nema or Bhuta Kola which is a kind of spirit-worship. This sub-sect of Billava community performs the Pooja activity during spirit-worship.

Namadhari Naik

Namadhari naik also known as Halepaika, are a similar community found in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka.

References

  1. ^ "Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia, Page 31,32". Bardwell L. Smith. BRILL Publishers. ISBN 9004045104. Retrieved 2008-07-29-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ "Customs, law, family system in 19th Century Malaba" (PDF). Praveena Kodoth. CDS Publishers. Retrieved 2008-07-29-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ "Nambutiris: Notes on Some of the People of Malabar". F. Fawcett, Fawsett Fred, Florence. Asian EducationalServices. ISBN 8120615751. Retrieved 2008-07-29-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ "Malabar Manual". William Logan. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120604466. Retrieved 2008-07-29-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ a b A. Aiyappan, Social Revolution in a Kerala Village: A Study in Culture Change. (Asia Publishing House, 1965), Page 85
  6. ^ "Social Revolution in a Kerala Village: A Study in Culture Change.Page 85". A. Aiyappan. (Asia Publishing House, 1965. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
  7. ^ "Social Movements and Social Transformation.Page 23". M. S. A. Rao. (Macmillan, 1979. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
  8. ^ K R Narayanan, Ezhavar Oru Padanam Vevekodayam publications, 1967) page27
  9. ^ EMS Namppothirppadu, Keralam Malayalikalude Mathrubhumi Desbhimany publications, VOl1, 1947 ) page27
  10. ^ NR Krishanan IAS, Izhavar Annum Innum
  11. ^ "Journal of the Oriental Institute". Oriental Institute. Maharajah Sayajirao University. Retrieved 2008-08-29. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ "Origin of Ezhavas and Thiyyas". Kerala Cafe. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
  13. ^ Oru Simha Prasavam by Kumaranasan
  14. ^ a b Smith, Bardwell L. (1976). Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia. BRILL publications. p. 30. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
  15. ^ Joseph, George Gheverghese (2003). On life and times of George Joseph, 1887-1938, a Syrian Christian nationalist from Kerala. Orient Longman. p. 18. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
  16. ^ "The Dravidians (On the Original Inhabitants of Bharatvarsha Or India.Page 5". Gustav. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120603486. Retrieved 2008-05-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help); line feed character in |publisher= at position 18 (help)
  17. ^ Villavar "The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago .Page 36". V. Kanakasabhai. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120601505. Retrieved 2008-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help); line feed character in |publisher= at position 18 (help)
  18. ^ A crypto-Dravidian origin for the nontribal communities of South India based on human leukocyte antigen class I diversity, by R. Thomas, S. B. Nair & M. Banerjee, Human Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, 16 June 2006, Tissue Antigens ISSN 0001-2815
  19. ^ a b c d e Smith, Bardwell L. (1976). Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia. BRILL publications. p. 27. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
  20. ^ a b c d e Smith, Bardwell L. (1967). Vadakkan and Thekkan Pattukal. Sri Rama Vilasom Press. pp. 128–148.
  21. ^ a b c d Aiya, Nagam. Travancore State Manual.
  22. ^ Kusuman, K K. "Ezhavas: Their many dimensions". NewIndPress. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
  23. ^ Joseph, George Gheverghese (2003). On life and times of George Joseph, 1887-1938, a Syrian Christian nationalist from Kerala. Orient Longman. p. 20. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
  24. ^ "Social Revolution in a Kerala Village: A Study in Culture Change.Page 85". A. Aiyappan. (Asia Publishing House, 1965. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
  25. ^ "Social Movements and Social Transformation.Page 23". M. S. A. Rao. (Macmillan, 1979. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
  26. ^ Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History.( National Book Stall, Kottayam, 1970), Page 111, 151, 152,15,154
  27. ^ Kurien, Prema A. (2002). Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India. Rutgers University Press. p. 46. ISBN 081353089X. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
  28. ^ Keralakaumudi, Sree Narayana Directory, (kaumudi Publications, 2007), page 21
  29. ^ Nossiter, Thomas Johnson and Cook, Frederick Albert (1982). Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation. C. Hurst & Co Publishers. pp. 21–22. Retrieved 2007-09-04.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ a b c d e f Bernier, Ronald M. (1982). Temple Arts of Kerala: A South Indian Tradition. Asia Book Corporation of America. ISBN 0940500795. Cite error: The named reference "ezh22" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  31. ^ a b Chaitanya, Krishna (1987). Temple Arts of Kerala: A South Indian Tradition. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 8170172098. Cite error: The named reference "ezh23" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  32. ^ a b c Keralakaumudi, Sree Narayana Directory, (Kaumudi Publications, 2007)
  33. ^ "cseindia". CSE India. CSE India. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
  34. ^ Smith, David (2003). Hinduism and Modernity. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0631208623.
  35. ^ "Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society". Indian Anthropological Society. Anthropology Periodicals. Retrieved 2008-04-30. {{cite web}}: Text "Page 53" ignored (help)
  36. ^ Mansingh, Surjit (1996). Historical dictionary of India. Scarecrow Press. p. 137. ISBN 0810830787. Retrieved 2007-12-20.
  37. ^ Pavithran, M.N. (2005). The British Commission to India: Historical Novel. Trafford Publishing. p. 159. ISBN 1412058880. Retrieved 2007-12-18.
  38. ^ Kurien, Prema A. (2002). Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India. Rutgers University Press. p. 46-47. ISBN 081353089X. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
  39. ^ K. P. S. Menon, Atmakatha (Kottayam: SPSS, 1971), p. 21.
  40. ^ "CENTRAL LIST OF OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES". Indian Government National Commission for Backward Classes. Retrieved 2007-10-27.
  41. ^ Cyriac K. Pullapilly, The Izhavas of Kerala and their Historic Struggle for Acceptance in the Hindu Society
  42. ^ NR Krishanan IAS, Izhavar Annum Innum
  43. ^ "Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia". Bardwell L. Smith. BRILL. Retrieved 2007-08-08.
  44. ^ Grover, B.L. and Grover, S. A New Look at Modern Indian History: Men of Destiny. p. 288. ISBN 8121903653. Retrieved 2007-12-08. {{cite book}}: Text "year 1998" ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ Dr. Palpu, Treatment of Tiyas in Travancore
  46. ^ "Shree Narayana Guru". Retrieved 2008-02-10.
  47. ^ Vasu, Dr K. I. "The Apostle of Social Equality". Shree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam. Retrieved 2008-02-10.
  48. ^ a b Surendra Kumar Srivastava and Akhileshwar Lal Srivastava, Social Movements for Development (Chugh Publications, 1988, ISBN 8185076340), Page 167 Cite error: The named reference "ezh27" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

Other references

  • Malabar Manual by William Logan
  • A Social History of India by S. N. Sadasivan
  • Keralacharitra Patdanangal by Velayudhan Panikkaserry
  • Buddhism in Kerala by PC Alexander
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ezhava&oldid=236859744"