Ardashir I.

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Ardaschir I coin with fire altar

Ardashir I. ( Persian اردشیر Ardaschīr , DMG Ardašir [ ærdaˈʃiːr ], rarely in Greco-Roman sources also Artaxerxes ; † approx. 242; Reign: 224–239 / 40) was the founder of the Sassanid Empire (224–651). He overthrew the Arsacid dynasty, which had ruled Iran up to that point,and pursued a very successful policy of expansion.

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Only a few sources are available for the early Sassanid period - and thus also for the time of Ardaschir. Besides the annals of the 9/10 Perso-Arab historian Tabari , who lived in the 19th century and who had access to sources that are now lost, are above all the Sassanid rock reliefs and inscriptions. Furthermore, several Western sources are available, such as Cassius Dio , Herodian (partly dependent on Cassius Dio), the Byzantine Johannes Zonaras (who relied on older models) and the historia Augusta, which is often very unreliable and written by an anonymous author around 400 ( Vita Alexandri Severi , which is largely worthless in this context). The western authors report primarily on the military conflicts between the Persians and the Romans. With regard to the genealogy of the early Sassanids, there are some problems. In the well-known inscription of Naqsch-e Rostam from the time of Shapur I , the son of Ardashir, the ancestors of the Sassanids are listed. Here, Papak (or Babak) is named as the father of Ardaschirs , but the family connection to the eponymous progenitor of the dynasty, Sassan , is not discussed further . According to Tabari, Sassan was Ardashir's paternal grandfather. The Karnamak-i Ardaschir , a Middle Persian work from the early 7th century, on the other hand, claims that Sassan was his maternal grandfather.

Life

Early years and fall of the Arsacids

Ardashir I receives the ring of power from Ahuramazda

Nothing is known about the year of birth and the early years of Ardashir. Ardashir, like his father a vassal of the Arsakid Parthian king , first came to rule the Persis . The exact time is unknown; in research, dates from 208 to 222 are mentioned, although an earlier date seems more plausible due to the subsequent development; Ardashir 211/12 is often assumed to have started the rebellion. His father became king of Istachr in 205/6 . Ardashir, on the other hand, was governor of Darabgird. After the death of his father and the surprising death of his brother Shapur (not to be confused with Ardaschir's son of the same name), Ardaschir himself was crowned king. His absence in Darabgird caused a rebellion there, which he quickly suppressed. He later conquered the Kerman region and incorporated it into his domain.

The Parthian King Artabanos IV could no longer tolerate Ardashir's action, especially since the expansion of Ardashir posed a threat to Artabanos himself. Artabanos, who may have viewed the fighting there as more of a local conflict, took action against Ardashir, but was repulsed. Finally, in 224, the decisive battle of Hormizdagan took place, in which Artabanos fell, and Ardashir was proclaimed King of Kings . Nevertheless, this did not automatically mean the end of Parthian rule, because the Arsacids were able to hold out in Mesopotamia and Azerbaijan for the time being; in Armenia they were actually supposed to be the local rulers until the beginning of the 5th century. Above all, however, many Parthian noble families defected to Ardashir and thus retained their power.

Ardashir now penetrated into the east of the empire, perhaps even as far as Khorasan , but the extent of Ardashir's conquests in the east is disputed. So it is at least doubtful whether the Kushan became vassals of the Sassanids during the reign of Ardashir. 225/26, Ardashir turned to the west, where Vologaeses VI. , a competitor of Artabanos, resided in Ctesiphon on the Tigris. The city was conquered by Ardashir at the end of 226; thus Parthian Mesopotamia was also conquered. Then he advanced to the Persian Gulf . On the Gulf he founded a city which he called Ardaschir Churreh (Glory of Ardaschirs, today Firuzabad ). He then advanced to Bahrain (or even Oman ) on the Gulf Coast .

Domestic politics

Unlike earlier research, most historians today emphasize the continuities between the Sassanid dynasty and its predecessors. The inner structure of the empire seems to have remained essentially unchanged. As in the time of the Arsacids, Ctesiphon was to become the main residence of the Sassanids. Ardaschir promoted Zoroastrianism , which however cannot be called a regular state religion. However, the Jews under the Parthians , for example, enjoyed greater freedom than was the case under Ardashir. The Great King seems to have been more tolerant towards Christians .

The large aristocratic families submitted to Ardaschir or came to terms with him. However, the relationship remained tense: Although the number of local kings from the Parthian era was reduced and a centralization of the state apparatus was perhaps promoted, the large magnate families (such as the Suras and Karen ) continued to play an important role. Ardashir promoted urbanization, but the king was limited to the land directly under him in the west of the empire. Around the year 230, the rule of the Sassanids in the former Arsacid Empire was firmly established, although an advance into Armenia and another against the Kingdom of Hatra had failed.

War against Rome and the last few years

In 230 Ardaschir began the struggle against Rome with the aim of bringing northern Mesopotamia , which had been annexed by Emperor Septimius Severus 30 years earlier, under his rule. According to Cassius Dio (80,4,1) and also Herodian (6,2), who probably followed his source Cassius Dio, Ardaschir is said to have appeared as heir to the Achaemenids and to have claimed the territories they ruled. This statement is very controversial in research, but it is rather unlikely that Ardaschir had any more detailed knowledge of the Achaemenid period, and there is no evidence of a policy of conquest west of the Euphrates . Ardaschir seems to have endeavored to legitimize his rule through combat performances; Far-reaching annexation intentions, for example with regard to Syria, are likely to have been far removed from him if he also called himself “King of Kings” (but only from vonrān ).

The war against Rome was initially successful, with Persian units penetrating deep into Syria, but the Roman Emperor Severus Alexander was able to counterattack in 232 . Both sides suffered heavy losses, which eventually forced an end to the fighting without a peace treaty having been concluded. After the assassination of Severus Alexander in 235, Ardaschir took the opportunity and again penetrated Roman territory in Mesopotamia. Nisibis and Karrhai (235/36) fell, as did the strategically important Hatra, allied with the Romans (240/41, after a Sassanid advance had failed in 226/27).

The chronology of the early Sassanid kings is problematic as it depends on the dating of various sources; this also applies to the beginning or the end of the rule of Ardaschir and his son and successor Shapur . In any case, before 240, Schapur appeared as co-regent of Ardaschir, who also accompanied him on his campaigns. Shapur presumably ruled as "King of Kings" since 240, although Ardashir probably only died in early 242; however, his death is partly (late) dated to the year 241.

Ardaschir laid the foundation stone for the 400-year existence of the Sassanid Empire, while Schapur completed the shell of the empire and also continued the war against Rome. Both are therefore among the most important Sassanid kings.

Sources in translation

literature

  • Erich Kettenhofen : The claim of the Achaemenid inheritance by Ardašir: an interpretatio romana . In: Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica 15 (1984), pp. 177-190.
  • Erich Kettenhofen: The conquest of Nisibis and Karrhai by the Sāsānids in the time of Emperor Maximin, 235/236 AD . In: Iranica Antiqua 30 (1995), pp. 159-177.
  • Klaus Schippmann : Basic features of the history of the Sassanid Empire . Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1990, ISBN 3-534-07826-8 .
  • Josef Wiesehöfer : ARDAŠĪR I i. History . In: Ehsan Yarshater (ed.): Encyclopædia Iranica . Volume 2 (4), pp. 371–376, status: 1986, accessed on June 16, 2011 (English, including references)
  • Josef Wiesehöfer: The realm of the Sāsānids . In: Klaus-Peter Johne (Ed.): The time of the soldiers' emperors . 2 volumes, Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2008, p. 531ff.
  • Theodor Nöldeke : Artaxerxes 5 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume II, 1, Stuttgart 1895, Sp. 1321-1325. [outdated]

Web links

Commons : Ardashir I.  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Remarks

  1. ↑ See Nöldeke (1879), pp. 1ff.
  2. ↑ See Theodor Nöldeke : History of Artachšir î Pâpakân . In: Bezzenberger's contributions 4. Göttingen 1878, p. 22ff. ( Digitized version of the University and State Library of Saxony-Anhalt, Halle )
  3. ↑ Wiesehöfer (2008), p. 535.
  4. ↑ See already Nöldeke (1879), p. 17 f. with the notes there.
  5. ↑ Nöldeke (1879), p. 18 f.
  6. ↑ See Kettenhofen (1984).
  7. ↑ Briefly summarized cf. Udo Hartmann : The Palmyrene Partial Kingdom . Stuttgart 2001, p. 65f., Note 3.
  8. ↑ Wiesehöfer (2008), p. 537ff.
  9. ↑ See Wiesehöfer (1986).
predecessor Office successor
--- King of the New Persian Empire
224–240 		Shapur I.
personal data
SURNAME Ardashir I.
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Artaxerxes
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Founder of the Sassanid dynasty
DATE OF BIRTH uncertain: 2nd century
DATE OF DEATH uncertain: 242