Kushana

Kushana clan badge

The Empire Kushan (Ancient Greek: Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; Bactrian: Κυϸανο, Kushano ; Sanskrit : Ku-shā-Na (Brahmi script), Kuṣāṇa Samrajya ; Chinese:貴霜; Partisch Kusan-xšaθr) was a synkretisches Empire in Central Asia and Northern India , which at its greatest extent - approximately between 100 and 250 AD (exact dating disputed; dating attempts are and were from the first BC to the fourth AD) - from the area of today's state of Tajikistan to the Caspian Sea and from the area of today's Afghanistan all the way down into the Indus Valley and the Ganges - Yamuna- Mesopotamia. The empire was founded in Bactria by descendants of the Yuezhi , originally from what is now the Chinese province of Gansu . Diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire , Sassanid Persia and the Empire of China are ascribed to him. Under Kanishka I , the empire could have extended from Varanasi via Kashmir and Bactria to the Oxus and in the south to the Sindh . The expansion of the empire into areas north of the Oxus is hypothetical and controversial.

Event history

Head of a clay sculpture with skull deformation from Chalchajan , Uzbekistan .

The Kuschana (or Kuschan ) are called Guishang in the Hou Hanshu , the story of the eastern Han dynasty , and are referred to as rule under the suzerainty of the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi were a loose confederation of Indo-European nomads on the dry grasslands in Gansu until they settled in the years 176 to 160 BC. Were driven out by another nomadic group, the Xiongnu . In the last two centuries before Christianity they penetrated into the Hellenized Bactria and the areas of Central Asia bordering to the north, where they started from 140/130 BC. Formed five rulership districts. Whether these five dynasts are members of the nomadic invaders or the long-established population is debatable and cannot be answered from the scarce sources. The Kushan, one of these principalities, subjugated their neighbors under their leader Kujula Kadphises in the first century AD; so they succeeded in founding the kingdom of the Kushana. This expanded to the south and gradually wrested control of Gandhara from the Indoparthers and Saks ( Šaka ) . As relatively independent governors (Kšatrapas) of the Kushana, Sak and Indoparthan petty kings ruled until the 2nd century.

The first known Kushan king Heraios .

Kanishka I , the fourth "Kushan Emperor" (ruled probably from 127–140 AD), led the empire to the height of its power. He ruled from two capital cities: Purushapura (now Peshawar in northern Pakistan) and Mathura in northern India. He, Huvischka and Vasudeva I. are called the "Great Kushan".

The reasons for the decline of the Kushan rule are unclear. In Central Asia, the Kushan Empire continued into the early 3rd century before it was conquered by the Sassanids . In the early 4th century there was a revolt of the Kushan, which was put down by Shapur II . Remnants of the Kushan rule continued to exist in the east even after the conquest of the western Kushan empire, for example in Mathura in northern India (until the 4th century).

In late ancient Central Asia , other nomad groups soon inherited the Kushana (see also Iranian Huns ).

trade

The Kushan combined maritime trade in the Indian Ocean with land trade on the Silk Road across the long-civilized Indus Valley . How important trade was for the Kushanas can be concluded from Pliny’s complaint : “There is no year in which India attracts less than 50 million sesterces .” It is assumed that the Kushanas made their own from all Roman gold coins Coins minted because there are hardly any finds of Roman coins. In addition to Hindu and Buddhist, the coins also show Greek, Persian and even Sumerian - Elamite gods.

Two seaports play a role in the Roman-Indian trade relations from around 25 BC. An important role from BC to AD 300, according to Barbarikon and Dvaraka .

In the west, Kushana bordered the Sassanid Empire . Here its territorial expansion at the time of Sapor I and the course of the main expeditions to the Roman Empire at the beginning of 250 AD.

Art, culture, religion

Symbolizing the syncretism of the Kushana. Zeus the protector of the Buddha

Maitreya , sculpture from Mathura (2nd century AD)

The Kushana period is often viewed as a dark age in India, as foreign dynasties ruled and the splendor of great empires such as the Mauryas or Guptas is missing. Nevertheless, important works such as the Dharmashastras or the Manusmriti were written during this period and the basis for the emergence of classical Indian culture was laid with the Indo-Kushana art. The poems and drama fragments of Ashvaghosa (1st / 2nd century) are the oldest surviving works of classical Sanskrit literature. In the Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, which conveyed western and Indian influences to the east, Indian, Iranian and Hellenistic elements merged.

The Kushan adopted the Greek alphabet they had encountered in Bactria and adopted the native language of the Bactrians. The Greek alphabet they adapted to the Bactrian language and soon began thus, coins to mint. Coin legends and inscriptions in one of the Indian languages, on the other hand, are written in Kharoshthi script . On the coins they called themselves Maharaja or Basileus . Only a few inscriptions are written next to it in a script that has not yet been deciphered, which some authors also call " unknown Kushana script ".

The loose unity and peace in the extensive Kushana empire favored long-distance trade, brought silk to Rome , created chains of flourishing cities, and presumably even encouraged the expansion of a Hellenistic form of Buddhism - Graeco Buddhism in central and northern Asia. Kanishka's main work is the famous stupa near Peshawar. In his religious policy he seems to have pursued syncretistic tendencies in order to consolidate the empire internally. Vasudeva was the first Cushan ruler to have an Indian name; the "Indianization" of the Kushans took its course.

Administration of the empire

Gold coin Kanishkas with Greek writing: the obverse shows the ruler known as Shahan Shah (šaonanošao) in Central Asian clothing in front of a fire altar , the reverse Buddha (boddo)

Parthian and Indo-Greek customs were followed in the state administration. The provinces were administered by satraps .

At the head of the empire stood the king, who could bear various titles, mostly borrowed from other cultures: he was the son of god (deaputra) , which is perhaps derived from the Chinese imperial title son of heaven . The Indian title king of kings (maharaja rajatiraja) and its Iranian and Greek equivalents Shahanshah and basileus basileon are attested. The Iranian title Padschah was also used and an inscription even used the Roman title Kaisara ( Caesar ) .

After death, the rulers were deified; their statues were placed in temples. Overall, the ruler seems to have been all powerful. There is no evidence of a council or senate with which resolutions had to be discussed.

Dating problems

The dating of the Kushana period was very controversial for a long time and has not yet been fully clarified. There are or were dates from the first to the third century AD. Because the Shaka era (since 78 or 79 AD) is still used today as the basis for dating, it was long considered to be the time introduced by Kanishka. In contrast, the numismatist Joe Cribb, on the basis of all coinage and literary sources, represented a period between 100 and 120 AD.

Ever since a mathematical formula became known that made it possible to convert from the Shaka to the Kushana period in the 3rd century, the date 127 AD for the accession of Kanishka I became generally accepted. The exact reigns of the rulers who followed Kanischka I. are disputed, especially since there is an overlap in the dates. At first it was assumed that at the end of the reign of Kanischka I. Vaschischka ruled as co-regent in the Indian provinces and that this system of co-regentities was continued among the successors. But it is also possible that Vasudeva I began a new era; the double dates would then be split over two eras.

List of Kushana rulers

The most important emperors (reigns only approximate) were:

king	Dating	comment	occupied data
Heraios	approx. 1–30
Kujula Kadphises	approx. 30-80		103
Vima Takto aka Soter Megas	approx. 80-90		122, 136
Vima Kadphises	approx. 90-100		184
Kanishka I.	approx. 100-126	most important Kushana ruler	1-23
Huvischka	approx. 140-183		28-60
Vasudeva I.	approx. 184-220		67-99
Kanishka II.	approx. 220–242		14th
Vasishka	approx. 227-250	Father of Kanischka III.	20, 22, 24, 28
Kanishka III.			31, 41

Dynasty of kidarites

Kidara I. (approx. 340–?)
Kidara II.

literature

Harry Falk: The Kaniska era in Gupta records. In: Silk Road Art and Archeology. Journal of the Institute of Silk Road Studies. 10, 2004, ISSN 0917-1614 , pp. 167-176.
Harry Falk: The yuga of Spujiddhvaja and the era of the Kusanas. In: Silk Road Art and Archeology. Journal of the Institute of Silk Road Studies 7, 2001, ISSN 0917-1614 , pp. 121-136.
János Harmatta et al. a. (Ed.): The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations. 700 BC to AD 250. Unesco, Paris 1994, ( History of Civilizations of Central Asia 2), ISBN 92-3-102846-4 , (with several articles on the Kuschana).
PN Puri: The Kushans. In: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations. 700 BC to AD 250. Unesco, Paris 1994, ( History of Civilizations of Central Asia 2), ISBN 92-3-102846-4 , pp. 247-263.
Ehsan Yarshater (Ed.): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. 2 parts. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1983, ( The Cambridge History of Iran 3, Part 1, ISBN 0-521-20092-X ; Part 2, ISBN 0-521-24693-8 ).

Web links

Commons : Kushan Empire - album with pictures, videos and audio files

Kushan Dynasty. In: Encyclopædia Iranica .
Bibliography ( Memento of December 8, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
Metropolitan Museum
New documents on the controversial dating of the Kushan Empire ( Memento from January 27, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
Information on the Yüe-chi ( Memento from August 1, 2001 in the Internet Archive )
Information about the Kushan (English)
Coins of the Greco-Bactrian and Kushana rulers ( Memento from May 29, 2005 in the Internet Archive )

Individual evidence

^ The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans , University of California Press, 1967, p.7
↑ Pengling Wang, "Indo-European loanwords in Altaic" , Sino-Platonic Papers, ed. Victor H. Mair. Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania 1995.
^ Nicholas K. Rauh, "A Short History of the Ancient World" , University of Toronto Press 2017. Pages 295 f.
↑ See also K. Enoki, G. a. Koshelenko and Z. Haidary: The Yue-chih and their migrations in: János Harmatta (eds.): History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations, 700 BC to AD 250. UNESCO Publishing, Paris 1994, ISBN 978-92-3-102846-5 , pp. 171-189, and BN Puri: The Kushans in: János Harmatta (Ed.): History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations, 700 BC to AD 250. UNESCO Publishing, Paris 1994, ISBN 978-92-3-102846-5 , pp. 247-263
^ A. S Gaur, Sundaresh, Sila Tripati: Evidence for Indo-Roman Trade from Bet Dwarka Waters, West Coast of India. In: International Journal of Nautical Archeology. 35, No. 1, April 2006, ISSN 1057-2414 , pp. 117-127, drs.nio.org (PDF).
↑ Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao: The lost city of Dvaraka. National Institute of Oceanography, 1999, ISBN 81-86471-48-0 .
↑ PN Puri: The Kushans. Pp. 260-263.
↑ PN Puri: The Kushans. P. 253.

34.983333333333 69.3Coordinates: 35 ° N , 69 ° E

[1] The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans , University of California Press, 1967, p.7

[2] Pengling Wang, "Indo-European loanwords in Altaic" , Sino-Platonic Papers, ed. Victor H. Mair. Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania 1995.

[3] Nicholas K. Rauh, "A Short History of the Ancient World" , University of Toronto Press 2017. Pages 295 f.

[4] See also K. Enoki, G. a. Koshelenko and Z. Haidary: The Yue-chih and their migrations in: János Harmatta (eds.): History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations, 700 BC to AD 250. UNESCO Publishing, Paris 1994, ISBN 978-92-3-102846-5 , pp. 171-189, and BN Puri: The Kushans in: János Harmatta (Ed.): History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations, 700 BC to AD 250. UNESCO Publishing, Paris 1994, ISBN 978-92-3-102846-5 , pp. 247-263

[5] A. S Gaur, Sundaresh, Sila Tripati: Evidence for Indo-Roman Trade from Bet Dwarka Waters, West Coast of India. In: International Journal of Nautical Archeology. 35, No. 1, April 2006, ISSN 1057-2414 , pp. 117-127, drs.nio.org (PDF).

[6] Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao: The lost city of Dvaraka. National Institute of Oceanography, 1999, ISBN 81-86471-48-0 .

[7] PN Puri: The Kushans. Pp. 260-263.

[8] PN Puri: The Kushans. P. 253.