Koh Ker

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Coordinates: 13 ° 47 ′ 13 ″  N , 104 ° 32 ′ 9 ″  E

Map: Cambodia
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Koh Ker​
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Cambodia
The seven-tier pyramid in Koh Ker
Inscription in Khmer script

Koh Ker ( Khmer : ប្រាសាទ កោះ កេរ ) is the modern name for a formerly important city of the Khmer Empire , which was called Lingapura (City of Lingas) or Chok Gargyar ("City of Shine "). It is located in northern Cambodia in a sparsely populated jungle area, around 120 kilometers from Siem Reap and Angkor . To date, over 180 monuments have been discovered on an area of ​​81 km 2 . Most of them are hidden in the forest, some of which is still heavily mined. About two dozen sanctuaries are safe to visit.

Under the Khmer kings Jayavarman IV and Harshavarman II , Koh Ker was briefly (from 928-944 AD) the capital of the entire empire. Jayavarman IV. (928-941) pursued an ambitious building program in Koh Ker, which included a large water reservoir and numerous temples, including a 36 m high, seven-tiered pyramid.

In Koh Ker the independent "Koh Ker style" was developed and the art of sculpture reached a brilliant climax. Because of the remote location, the place was repeatedly haunted by art thieves. Sculptures from Koh Ker can be found in various museums. Masterpieces from Koh Ker are occasionally offered at auctions; From today's perspective, it is mostly looted art.

Since 1992 Koh Ker has been on the list of candidates for UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

geography

Koh Ker is located between the southern foothills of the Dangrek Mountains , the Kulen Mountains (Phnom Kulen) in the southwest and the Phnom Tbeng in the east. The region is hilly and for the most part densely forested, with deciduous trees in the majority. In the second half of the 19th century, when French explorers and adventurers roamed the area, there were still large game populations. The city of Koh Ker was located on the most important strategic road of the entire Khmer Empire, which led from Angkor to Beng Mealea to Prasat Preah Vihear and on to Phimai (in present day Thailand) and Wat Phu (in present day Laos). The area is relatively dry. Numerous reservoirs and canals were built in the 9th and 10th centuries to ensure the water supply. Today water is pumped from a depth of around 30 to 40 meters.

history

Koh Ker was first mentioned in an inscription in 919 AD and referred to as Pura (Sanskrit for city). Even then there were numerous sanctuaries in Koh Ker.

Jayavarman IV .

Jayavarman IV likely ruled as the local king over an area of ​​which Koh Ker was the capital before being proclaimed King of Kambuja in 928 . That would explain why he chose the remote Koh Ker as a metropolis and not ruled in Roluos (Hariharalaya) or Yasodharapura (Angkor) like his predecessors . Jayavarman IV demonstrated his power with, among other things, an ambitious building program that he implemented through repressive tax collections. Around forty temples, including the huge step pyramid, were built in Koh Ker during his reign (928–944). Sculpture reached an artistic peak during his reign.

The question of whether Jayavarman IV was a usurper is often debated. However, the majority of researchers consider him a legitimate ruler. Jayavarman IV came to power thanks to the marriage to a younger half-sister of Yasovarman I (889–900), since the sons of this king had died without descendants (Harshavarman I ruled from 900–922, Isanavarman II from 922 – ca. . 925).

Harshavarman II.

After the death of Jayavarman IV in 941, his designated successor did not become king. Another of his sons, Harshavarman II, usurped the rule. No other temples were built in Koh Ker during his brief reign (941-944). Whether Harshavarman II died of natural causes is questionable. His cousin Rajendravarman II succeeded him and moved the capital back to Angkor.

Koh Ker after 944

Although Koh Ker was no longer the capital of the Khmer Empire, there is evidence that further buildings were built after 944. The last temple was built at the beginning of the 13th century and is located east of the Rahal-Baray. It comes from Jayavarman VII. (1181-1220) and was one of over 100 hospital chapels that this ruler had built throughout the empire.

Research history

19th century

The French Lunet de Lajonquière and Etienne Aymonier visited Koh Ker in the second half of the 19th century. They saw the main temple complex, the Baray and a group of Linga shrines. Among other things, they discovered an eight to nine meter wide road (several sections), which they suspected once led from Koh Ker towards Wat Phu. Around 1880 members of a French expedition traveled to Koh Ker and stole numerous relief parts and statues. These are now in the Musée Guimet in Paris.

20th century

At the beginning of the 20th century, art historians recognized that in the first half of the 10th century Koh Ker had developed an independent style. Around the same time, Georg Coedes concluded from inscriptions that Koh Ker was the capital of the Khmer Empire during the reign of Jayavarman IV (928–941). Another French expedition came to Koh Ker in the 1930s. The total number of monuments discovered on an area of ​​35 km 2 increased to around fifty. Henry Parmentier made a number of masterful drawings. In the 1970s, after the end of the Khmer Rouge's reign of terror, research was resumed in Koh Ker (by APSARA as well as French, Japanese and Australian scientists).

21st century

At the beginning of the 21st century it was realized that not all monuments could have been built during the brief period when Koh Ker was the capital. The era of exploration from the air (including with the help of satellite images) also began in Koh Ker. In 2004 the area worth protecting was expanded to 81 km 2 . Japanese researchers then needed five years to describe 184 monuments and their precise location. The Australian research team led by Damian Evans succeeded in confirming Lajonquière's more than a hundred years old assumption that there was once a road connecting Koh Ker and Wat Phu. Evans believes that this was the most important strategic route in the entire Khmer Empire.

religion

The city of Koh Ker and its surroundings were probably a Hindu place of worship for a long time before it became the capital of the entire empire under Jayavarman IV in 928 and subsequently experienced a heyday. Jayavarman IV himself was an ardent devotee of Shiva , as evidenced by inscriptions and numerous shrines. While later Khmer kings (who did not reside in Koh Ker) turned to Buddhism and had corresponding changes made to the temples, Koh Ker was largely spared these interventions thanks to its remote location.

Inscriptions

Inscriptions mentioning Koh Ker as the capital have been found in Takeo , Kampong Cham , Siem Reap and Battambang . From inscriptions discovered in Koh Ker, it can be concluded that over ten thousand people lived in the short-term capital. The inscriptions also mention how work was organized in the empire: workers from many provinces of the country were mobilized, and taxes in the form of rice were levied to supply them. An inscription on Prasat Damrei (see below) says that the shrine on the state temple (Prang, see below) housed a 4.5 m high lingam and that the erection of this Shiva symbol caused some difficulties. In Prasat Thom (see below) there is a Sanskrit inscription that testifies that a Shiva linga was consecrated here in 921, who was worshiped under the name Tribhuvaneshvara (“Lord of the Threefold World” according to Jacques, 2007) has been.

Koh Ker style

The Koh Ker style (921–944) not only includes numerous monuments and sculptures that were created in Koh Ker, but also the Prasat Krahom and Baksei Chamkrong temples in Angkor.

The step pyramid type, as represented by the prang (see below) and the Baksei Chamkrong, is new in architecture at the time of Jayavarman IV. Another new feature is the erection of several similar towers on a common platform. In Koh Ker there are three Prasats in a row (the Prasat Krahom in Angkor has five towers).

The art of sculpture reached an absolute peak in Koh Ker. For the first time in the history of Khmer art, the round three-dimensional sculptures stand freely in the room without supports. They are detailed on all sides and worked with the greatest care. The figures often appear extremely dynamic, with the motifs of wrestling and dance being particularly popular. The facial features are gentle and noble and show a fine smile. The lintels of the temples of Koh Ker have elaborate reliefs with lush leaf tendrils and sometimes a medallion with mythological scenes. The lingas in the Prasats are often around two meters high and very thick. The associated yonis are up to a meter high and richly decorated with ornamental and figurative relief decorations. Most of Koh Ker's figural architectural decor is now in museums, e.g. B. in the National Museum in Phnom Penh or the Musée Guimet in Paris or was robbed.

Selected sculptures from Koh Ker in the National Museum of Phnom Penh

In the entrance area of ​​the National Museum in Phnom Penh there is a 2.13 meter high Garuda from Prasat Thom (see below). A masterpiece are the approximately 80 cm high torsos of two closely intertwined wrestlers, who also come from Prasat Thom. Originally in Prasat Chen (see below) stood the 1.94 meters tall, wrestling monkey kings Valin and Sugriva (figures from the Ramayana ).

Historical city of Koh Ker

The actual urban area of ​​Koh Ker, in which at least ten thousand people lived at the time of Jayavarmas IV, stretched northwest of the large water reservoir (Rahal Baray). Some authors mention a square city fortification with a side length of 1.2 km; Most researchers today tend to view the linear structures, some of which run parallel, some at right angles, as dams of canals. The main sanctuary of Koh Ker, the temple complex Prasat Thom / Prang, was not in the center of the former city. Nothing has been preserved from the wooden buildings common in the Khmer Empire.

Laterite , sandstone and brick were used as building materials in Koh Ker . Laterite and sandstone of excellent quality were abundant in the region; thus long transport routes were eliminated. The bricks used are small, regular and very dense. A thin layer of organic material, the composition of which has not been fully clarified, was used as the mortar. The brick structures in Koh Ker survived the centuries far better than those made of laterite. The roofs of some of the temples in Koh Ker had a wooden structure and were tiled, as indicated by the holes drilled in the stone for the girders.

Water reservoirs

The Baray (water reservoir), called Rahal, is the largest object on the site of the short-term Khmer capital. It measures 1200 m × 560 m and was carved out of the natural bedrock. It has three dams that are clad with laterite steps. The Rahal is not oriented from east to west like the Barays of Angkor, but shows a north 15 ° west orientation, which is also followed by the most important monuments in Koh Ker. From this it can be concluded that the construction of the Baray began first. It is not entirely clear whether an existing depression or other reasons were decisive for this orientation. Today the Rahal Baray is mostly dry and overgrown with grass and trees. Only the corner that is closest to the main monuments has smaller water areas even in the dry season.

In the vicinity of Koh Ker there are other reservoirs of smaller dimensions than the Rahal. The "Sra Andong Preng" is located south of Prasat Thom. It is embedded in the ground, has laterite steps and cannot be assigned to a temple. Since the (wooden) palace of Jayavarman IV was in this area, the Sra Andong Preng could be a royal bath. In the rainy season the water is up to seven meters high here.

The Trapeang Khna is located south of the Rahal next to the Prasat Khna. The artificial, about 40 meters long, irregularly shaped sandstone basin has reliefs with unique motifs (on the outer narrow sides of the edge). In addition to lingas and yonis , planetary deities and rare animals such as dolphins, manatees and monitor lizards are shown. Irrawaddy dolphins can still be seen in the Mekong today ; Manatees used to live a. a. in the Tonle Sap Lake. The basin of the Trapeang Khna and the surrounding area are lush with plants, so that it is not easy to find the reliefs.

Shrines and temples

Map of Koh Ker

Main shrine Prasat Thom / Prang

Linear plan

The Prasat Thom / Prang temple complex follows a linear plan, which is very rare in Khmer architecture, which favored concentric structures (another example with a linear floor plan is the Prasat Preah Vihear). Lajonquière and Parmentier saw the main temple group in a far better condition than it is today. Your descriptions (from 1902 and 1939) help us to understand the system. The access road ends at the visitor parking lot, which cuts through the linear system. The two so-called palaces are on the right. On the left side (behind the restaurants) are the other structures of the temple complex: the entrance pavilion, two towers, the Prasat Krahom, the walled area with the moat, the Prasat Thom and the Prang and the "Elephant Hill". The axis of the complex does not extend precisely from east to west, but is at right angles to the main axis of the Baray (15 ° NNW) which corresponds to 15 ° NE. The total length of the plant is more than 800 meters.

Palaces

The North and South Palaces are very similar to each other. Both consist of four rectangular buildings of different lengths that are arranged around a courtyard. Each of the eight buildings is divided into one large and two small interior rooms. Two buildings in each palace have porches with pillars. It is believed that the palaces served the king or guests of honor as prayer rooms or lounges. There is a distance of 185 m between the two palaces and the next monument.

Entrance pavilion and laterite towers

A huge gopuram made of sandstone with a cross-shaped floor plan stands around 45 meters in front of the double sanctuary. The cross bar of the cross measures over 60 meters, the longitudinal bar 30 meters. Two long halls (forerunners of the later galleries) stand parallel to the crossbeam, giving the impression of a double crossbeam. The remains of two large laterite towers stand directly behind the heavily crumbled Gopuram.

Prasat Krahom

Behind the two laterite towers is the Prasat Krahom, which owes its name to the color of the bricks from which it is built ( krahom , "red"). On the one hand, the Prasat Krahom grants entry into the walled area and, on the other hand, is an independent temple of impressive size. It has a cruciform floor plan and is in good condition. It once housed a 3.50 m statue of the dancing Shiva with five heads and ten arms. The sculpture was completely destroyed (there is a hand fragment 50 cm in length in the National Museum in Phnom Penh).

Outer enclosure

The elongated outermost wall ring (3rd wall ring) extends over a length of 328 meters and a width of 151 meters. A transverse wall divides the enclosed area into two courtyards. The eastern courtyard is almost square with a length of 157 meters and a width of 151 meters. The western courtyard is 171 meters long.

Moat

In the eastern courtyard, a tree-lined moat around 47 meters wide frames the complex complex of Prasat Thom. Access to the temple area is via two dams, one of which is on the east and the other on the west. Both are flanked by Naga balustrades. The eastern dam also has a colonnade of pillars that extends between the Naga balustrades. Huge Garudas originally stood behind the Nagas of the eastern dam (see selected sculptures).

Prasat Thom

The Prasat Thom (which means great sanctuary) is located in the eastern courtyard within the moat. The structures of the entire temple complex are in poor condition. The temple has two concentric walls. The 1st (inner) wall ring is made of brick; the 2nd (outer) wall ring is made of laterite and approx. 60 meters long and 55 meters wide. The gates of both wall rings are on the east and west side. The gates of the outer wall have a cruciform floor plan. The area between the 1st and 2nd wall ring is almost completely occupied by rectangular structures that were probably added later. In the innermost district are the central sanctuary, two so-called libraries and 21 towers. Nine towers rise on a common platform, five in the first and four in the second row. Around the platform there are a total of twelve other, smaller towers in groups of three. All prasats originally contained lingas. An inscription says that the main lingam was consecrated in 921.

Prang

The prang , the seven-tier * sandstone pyramid (often incorrectly called Prasat Thom), is much more like the pyramids in Central America (e.g. Teotihuacán or Chichén Itzá ) than the multi-tiered temple mountains of the Khmer period (only the Baksey Chamkrong is similar to the prang in Angkor). Construction of the temple began in 928; it is considered the state temple of Jayavarman IV. The base edges of the square step pyramid measure 62 m, the current height is 36 m. On the top platform of the monument there was originally a shrine that housed a huge lingam (symbol of the state god Shiva). In inscriptions it is said that this lingam is the largest and most magnificent of all. Only on the east side there is an extremely steep staircase, which is in a desolate condition. The original stone staircase and the metal ladder attached above are so damaged that an entry ban had to be put in place for years. Since 2015, comfortable wooden stairs have made it possible to climb the pyramid. * Some researchers refer to the monument as having six steps and consider the seventh step to be the pedestal for the (no longer existing) shrine that once housed the lingam. This pedestal (the 7th step) was decorated on the outside with Garuda reliefs.

White Elephant Tomb

Behind the step pyramid, a circular, artificial hill rises outside the surrounding wall, the so-called "grave of the white elephant". It may be the core of another monument. It is also discussed whether it could be the tomb of Jayavarman IV. The hill is overgrown with bushes and trees. The narrow path that leads to the hill has been closed for safety reasons.

Monuments on the access road

Prasat Pram

Prasat Pram, the southernmost of the accessible temples, is on the left side of the access road, from which a 300 m long path leads to the sanctuary. There are five prasats ( pram , "five") within an enclosure wall . Three brick towers stand on a common platform. Just a few steps before the first and third towers, but next to the platform, there are two more Prasats. The smaller, northern one is made of laterite, the southern one from bricks. In the upper area of ​​the brick tower, small, diamond-shaped openings are clearly visible, an indication that the sacred fire, which played an important role in the Khmer cults, was kept here. It can be clearly seen that the four well-preserved brick towers were originally covered with a white layer. Unfortunately, the lavishly decorated lintels were knocked off by art thieves. In the National Museum in Phnom Penh there are two artifacts from the Prasat Pram: the remains of a lion statue and fragments of a standing, four-armed Vishnu .

Prasat Neang Khmau

This sanctuary is about 500 meters after Prasat Pram on the right side of the road. A laterite wall surrounds the well-preserved tower made of the same material. Inside, the original linga is still on a yoni.

Prasat Bak

About 1000 meters north of Prasat Pram and on the left side of the road is Prasat Bak. The laterite temple, measuring only 5 m × 5 m, is in a desolate state. Until at least 1960 it housed a colossal statue of Ganesh, the elephant-headed son of Shiva and Uma. This sculpture is now in a private collection outside of Cambodia.

Prasat Chen

To the north of Prasat Bak are the ruins of Prasat Chen. All parts of the temple complex are made of laterite. The three towers, of which the middle one overlooks the others, stand on a common platform. They are surrounded by two concentric walls. The impressive giant sculpture with two wrestling monkey kings, which is exhibited in the National Museum in Phnom Penh, was originally located in this sanctuary. Because of the hairstyle of the monkey kings, which is reminiscent of Chinese hairdresses, the system was named Prasat Chen ( chen , "Chinese"). At the beginning of the 21st century, a fragment of a multi-armed Vishnu statue was discovered in front of the central tower. Five inscriptions were found in Prasat Chen. In these the names of the people who were in the temple service are listed.

Monuments on the circuit

The road, built at the suggestion of archaeologists, starts at the parking lot, leads around the Rahal Baray and ends in the access road. The circuit allows access to most of the sanctuaries that are open to visitors. There were originally four Linga shrines near the northeast corner of the Rahal, the first two of which are relatively well preserved.

Prasat Balang (Prasat Leung Moi)

Linga 1: The northernmost shrine of this group stands on a platform and has a squat cube shape with an open roof. It is built from sandstone blocks and houses an intact linga approx. Two meters high, weighing several tons and standing on a yoni. Linga and yoni are carved out of the natural rock. The ornate reliefs on the side walls of the yoni were chopped off, as were the four garudas in the corners, who seemed to be carrying the yoni with their raised arms. There is space for a few people between the yoni and the walls of the shrine. This was probably intended for the priests who were responsible for the cult activities. The linga was consecrated by pouring water over it. It was caught by the yoni and directed into the open on the north side via a drain (which is still visible today).

Prasat Thneng (Prasat Leung Pee)

Linga 2: The second Linga shrine is very similar to the first. The linga, similar in size to the first shrine, has a huge notch at the base, which probably originated from art thieves. The yoni is badly damaged.

Leung bye

Linga 3: Nothing remains of the shrine. The linga, which is more than two meters tall, lies overturned on the broken yoni.

Prasat Leung Bon

Linga 4: On the other side of the street is the Prasat Leung Bon, a tower made of large sandstone blocks. Behind this lie the ruins of a gopuram. There is a large, broken linga in the tower; In addition, the yoni base was stripped of its relief jewelry.

Prasat Andong Kuk (Prasat Sralau)

This walled monument shows the same architecture as the hospital chapels that Jayavarman VII built in the 13th century. Century in the whole Khmer Empire, which indicates that Koh Ker in the XII. Century was still an inhabited city. In the central shrine of the badly damaged sanctuary stands a large linga from an earlier period. The Prasat Andong Kuk was built in part from elements that come from older temples; even stones with Sanskrit inscriptions found a new use.

Prasat Krachap

This large, badly damaged sanctuary is considered to be one of the most beautiful in Koh Ker. It was inaugurated in 928 and has two concentric walls, the outer one measuring 105 m by 105 m. Five brick towers once stood in quincunx positions on a platform inside, which is barely recognizable . The magnificent gopuram originally had a roof made of a wooden structure (which is covered by holes in the stone) and bricks. Two reliefs depicting Shiva on Nandi , his mount, can be found in this monument, as well as an inscription.

Prasat Bantey Pee Chean

The Prasat Bantey Pee Chean, which was completed in 937, is in a ruinous state. It has two concentric enclosing walls; the outer one measures 105 m × 105 m. The laterite temple in the center, which includes libraries and a long gallery, was surrounded by eight smaller brick sanctuaries, little of which has survived.

Prasat Chrap

This temple has two concentric enclosing walls. Three large laterite towers, which stand in a row, rise in the center. In front of these are the remains of two brick prasats.

Prasat Damrei

Located south of the Rahal Baray, the Prasat Damrei, a brick shrine with a side length of 6 m, is located on the right-hand side of the slope within a wall. Four stairs flanked by lions lead to the sanctuary, in each of the corners of which a sandstone elephant originally kept watch; unfortunately only two of these sculptures have survived.

Prasat Krahom

This small brick temple (not to be confused with the Prasat of the same name in the main shrine) stands west of Prasat Damrei. The top part is split in two.

Gate in Koh Ker

literature

  • Damian Evans: The Archaeological Landscape of Koh Ker, Northwest Cambodia. In: Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient, Vol. 97/98, 2010-2011, pp. 91-150
  • Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 . (with plans and photographs).
  • A short guide to the temples in Koh Ker. Heritage Watch. (no author, no publisher, no year of publication mentioned) OCLC 609420688 (with plans, drawings and photographs)
  • Helen Ibbitson Jessup: Art & Architecture of Cambodia. Thames & Hudson world of art, 2004, ISBN 0-500-20375-X .
  • Dawn Rooney: Angkor, Cambodia's Wondrous Temples. 2006, ISBN 962-217-802-2 , pp. 374-380.

Web links

Commons : Koh Ker  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files
Wikivoyage: Koh Ker  - travel guide

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , pp. 8-9.
  2. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 13.
  3. ↑ Cambodia: Properties submitted on the Tentative List, accessed on whc.unesco.org on May 7, 2014.
  4. ↑ a b c Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , pp. 13-14.
  5. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 9.
  6. ↑ a b A short guide to the temples of Koh Ker, Heritage Watch
  7. ↑ a b c d Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 15.
  8. ↑ Lunet de Lajonquière: "Inventaire déscriptif des monuments Cambodge". E. Leroux 1907, pp. XXXIV, Ebook and Texts Archive> American Libraries.
  9. ↑ Helen Ibbitson Jessup: Art & Architecture of Cambodia. Thames & Hudson world of art, 2004, ISBN 963-08-0470-0 , pp. 89-96.
  10. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 16.
  11. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 31.
  12. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 32.
  13. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 21.
  14. ↑ Helen Ibbitson Jessup: Art & Architecture of Cambodia. Thames & Hudson world of art, 2004, ISBN 963-08-0470-0 , pp. 90-91.
  15. ^ Dawn Rooney: Angkor, Cambodia's Wondrous Temples. 2006, ISBN 962-217-802-2 , p. 380.
  16. ↑ a b Helen Ibbitson Jessup: Art & Architecture of Cambodia. Thames & Hudson world of art, 2004, ISBN 963-08-0470-0 , p. 91.
  17. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , pp. 27-29.
  18. ^ Dawn Rooney: Angkor, Cambodia's Wondrous Temples. 2006, ISBN 962-217-802-2 , pp. 375-377.
  19. ↑ Helen Ibbitson Jessup: Art & Architecture of Cambodia. Thames & Hudson world of art, 2004, ISBN 963-08-0470-0 , p. 93.
  20. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 30.
  21. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 19.
  22. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 20.
  23. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 33.
  24. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 26.
  25. ^ '"A short guide to the temples in Koh Ker". Heritage Watch
  26. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 25.
  27. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 24.
  28. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 23.
  29. ↑ Csaba Kàdas: Koh Ker, short guide. Hunincor 2010, ISBN 978-963-08-0470-7 , p. 22.