Opata (people)

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The Opata (from the dialect of the Upper Pima Ohp - 'enemies' or Obagg'ata - 'have an enemy') were a tribal group of the Taracahitian division of the Uto-Aztec language family , living in northeastern and central Sonora, as well as northwestern Chihuahua in Mexico and lived on the Gulf of California (Golfo de California).

Groups of Opata

  • Eudeve (Eh-oo-deh-veh, proper name: Deve - 'people', largest group of the Opata, whose villages and towns were in the northwest, western and southern part of the Opateria)
  • Teguima (also Tehuima , Teh-wee-mah - 'river people', second largest group of the Opata, lived in the northeastern part of the Opateria)
  • Jova (Ho-vah - 'water people', the smallest group of the Opata, lived in the southeastern part of the Opateria)

The Jova originally lived in eight villages, but lost their identity as an independent group in the 17th century by marrying the neighboring Eudeve, in which they were later absorbed.

Contrary to the prevailing opinion that the tribal name used today is borrowed from a dialect of the Upper Pima, according to the oral tradition of the Opata, some Tehuima villages called themselves Opata ('iron ore people'), as there were large deposits of iron ore in their territory . Since the Opata's spearheads were made of iron ore, these Tehuima were also known as the 'Iron Spear People'.

In a few ethnographic writings it is reported that the Opata generally referred to themselves as Joylraua . According to the Opata, Joylraua only referred to a village of the Eudeve, which was named after a famous chief.

Well-known villages of the Opata are: Acônche, Aibin, Alamos, Aribetzi, Arispe, Babiácora, Babispes, Bacadévatzi, Bacanôra, Bacóbitzi, Banámitzi, Bâtanes, Batuco, Bâtziner, Chinapa, Cuchuricac, Cucatzúripe, Debatziape, Cúmacori Oppôsura, Oppotu, Saracatzi, Sauaripa, Setásura, Teúricatzi, Toâ ^ pa, Tonitzi, Uasserác, Uépaca, Vásdabas and Zenoquippe.

A group of the opata had also joined the Tano , who belonged to the Pueblo Indians , and lived in the pueblos Mochilagua and Vallecillo.

history

The Opata were among the most bellicose and daring tribes in Sonora and their constant raids on the neighboring Upper Pima ( Akimel O'Odham , Ak-Chin O'Odham , Sobaipuri and Tohono O'Odham ) made them a constant threat to their settlements, so that these parts of their tribal areas, the Pimeria Alta , gave up and the Opata now claimed these areas. As a result, the settlement areas of the Pima Alto ( Upper Pima ) and those of the Pima Bajo ( Lower Pima ) were divided by the influx and expansion of the Opata from the south and the Apaches from the north. The Opata had eventually expanded their territory into the Huachuca Mountains in southern Arizona.

But after the Opata were increasingly threatened by the increasingly numerous and threatening raids of the Apaches, in particular the Chiricahua and the Western Apaches , they made themselves available to the Spaniards (and later the Mexicans) as extremely reliable auxiliary troops and scouts against them. To ward off their common enemies from the north, the Spaniards built a presidio line across the Pimeria Alta and Opateria , which was permanently manned by Spanish soldiers as well as Pima and Opata warriors. In addition, the Spaniards forced a compromise between Opata and Pima for the defense of the Spanish-Indian border to Apacheria . Through the presidios , the peace between Pima and Opata as well as the common military service against the Apaches, trade relations as well as cultural contacts between the Upper Pima and the Lower Pima ( O'Ob , O'Odham ) were established which had previously been prevented by the Opata. Despite the support of the Spaniards, the Opata could not withstand the advancing Apaches and finally had to give up their northern areas in southern Arizona and move south to central Sonora.

Because of the constant raids and wars of the Apaches against the Pima groups and against the Opata, these tribes asked for missionaries to be sent and quickly adopted Christianity to find protection from their Indian enemies from the north. But none of these tribes adopted the Spanish lifestyle faster and more successfully than the Opata, so that in the middle of the 18th century they could hardly be perceived as an indigenous nation by the neighboring Spaniards and mestizos.

The Opata and the Pima groups quickly became the main support for the Spanish settlements, cities and missions and a bulwark against the predatory Apaches. Because of their loyal service, the Spaniards called them the bravest, most noble-minded (noblest) and most loyal of all friendly-minded tribes - the Tlaxcalteks of the interior. The particularly good relations between Spaniards (and later Mexicans) and Opata were only marred by a failed conspiracy in 1696, minor riots in the 18th century and a major uprising in 1820 during the Mexican War of Independence. The reasons for this unrest were mostly that the Spaniards forced the Opata warriors into military service against the Apaches for too long, so that the fields often could not be tilled by the women for fear of the Apaches (and therefore famines occurred) - or the abandoned Opata settlements were completely defenseless against attacks by the Apaches.

Although the Pima and Opata often jointly defended the missions, cities and settlements, the Opata viewed the Pima as culturally inferior to them - which, of course, they rejected. [This is one example among many when a group, through assimilation, now describes itself as culturally 'higher' and 'more civilized' than a group (culturally equal before assimilation)]. But the Jesuits only increased the tensions between the tribes - by hiring Opata as their assistants in Pima missions and giving them authority and power over the Pima resident there. In 1695 the Pima rose up, killed some Jesuits and their Opata helpers, destroyed the Mission Altar and attacked the Mission Caborca. After a failed peace talks between Opata, Pima and Spaniards, in the outcome of which some Pima were killed, they fled and destroyed Spanish cities and haciendas. Only after a few military actions by the Spaniards and Opata and years of negotiations did Father Eusebio Francisco Kino succeed in reaching a balance between the parties.

Around 1780 regular auxiliary troops of the Pima and Opata were stationed in six presidios in Sonora, the Opata, in contrast to the Pima, were allowed to choose their own commanders. Both tribes were obliged to always provide the Spaniards with a certain number of warriors to defend the border against the Apaches - the Spaniards also managed to convince the Opata to settle in larger settlements around the missions.

When the Sobaipuri finally had to vacate the valleys of the San Pedro River and the Santa Cruz River from 1762 because of the Apache, these valleys were open to ever larger groups of the Apaches to attack Spanish and Indian settlements south in Mexico. As a result of these wars, the Opata asked for the establishment of another regular Presidio company, consisting of Opata warriors, in Baserac or Bavispe . The opata of this region were particularly hard hit by the Apache raids and were severely decimated. In order to be able to counter the attacks of the Apaches even better, a new presidio was also built in Buenavista , which was occupied by Pima and Opata.

Even later, among the Mexicans and Americans, the Opata provided brave and bold scouts when it came to their Indian arch-enemies from the north.

Socio-political organization

Most of the Opateria consisted of mountain ranges, plateaus and river valleys. The small settlements of the Opata were mostly located along the rivers.

The grandpas lived in matrilineal (origin and mostly ownership derives from the maternal side) organized villages, which were also viewed as a clan. Each village had a council of elders made up of men and women, who usually also provided the village chief (mostly due to his age and reputation). The chief of the village was more of an advisor, mediator, spokesman and advocate for the village.

In addition, there were chiefs for war and hunting (since war and hunting represented different 'powers'), who were mostly experienced and respected men.

In addition to the chiefs, there was also the nemútz ( shaman ), who was a naturopath, doctor, healer, sorcerer as well as spiritual and ceremonial leader, advisor and teacher all rolled into one. The majority of the Nemútz were men, but some villages had female shamans.

The Opata were generally peaceful and non-imperialist, in particular their armed conflicts with neighboring tribes - with the exception of the Upper Pima - were not aimed at land gain or hegemony over them. The tribal councils of the mostly clan- dominated villages and settlements decided on various forms of reparation for certain social offenses that depended on the crime - temporary or permanent banishment from the village or area and, in serious cases, the killing of the perpetrator.

There were often brief armed conflicts between neighboring Opata clans (villages and settlements). In most cases, these conflicts started out of petty arguments between two or more individuals who then secured the support of their clan (village or settlement) - without prior consultation with the chiefs and elders.

Sometimes a Nemútz (shaman) was also killed by warriors of a (temporarily) rival clan, as he was suspected of having put a curse on one or more residents of the villages belonging to this clan, as the Opata had suddenly developed a serious illness Did not know how to explain injury or death otherwise.

language

The dialects of the three tribal groups of the Opata belonged to the Taracahitian of the Uto-Aztec language family and were therefore closely related to the also Uto-Aztec languages ​​of the neighboring Pima (Upper and Lower Pima), the Tarahumara (proper name: Raramuri ) and the Cahita speakers ( Yaqui and Mayo ).

The name for the dialect of the Eudeve is Dohema , the Teguima spoke Tehuima and the Jova spoke Jova . All dialects were understandable to one another. Since the Jova were absorbed into the Eudeve in the 17th century, the Jova dialect died out in the 18th century.

Today the various dialects of the Opata are generally considered to be extinct.

Demographics

The Spaniards viewed the various groups as a tribal unit, as they were almost indistinguishable culturally and linguistically. The Franciscans estimated the total opata at around 20,000 people. Today there are no more whole-blooded Opata, but descendants from connections with neighboring tribes and Spaniards (Mexicans) who still make up the majority in the area of ​​the former Opateria. In addition, many Opata descendants live in other areas of Sonora and Mexico as well as in the southwest of the USA.

literature

  • Kuno Mauer: The new Indian lexicon. The Power and Greatness of the Indians up to their Extinction , ISBN 3-7844-2512-7 , 1994
  • Donald E. Worcester: The Apaches - 'Eagles of the Southwest', Econ Verlag 1982, ISBN 3-430-19854-2
  • Donald E. Worcester: The Apaches - 'Eagles of the Southwest', University of Oklahoma Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8061-1495-9 (English)
  • Nikolaus Baumhauer: The Apaches : - 'The Origin of Rivalry', Verlag für Amerikaistik, 1993, ISBN 3-924696-88-8
  • Cynthia Radding: Wandering Peoples - 'Colonialism, Ethnic Spaces and Ecological Frontiers in Northwestern Mexico, 1700-1850', Duke University Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0822318996
  • Edward H. Spicer: Cycles of Conquest: 'The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960', University of Arizona Press, 1967, ISBN 978-0816500215 , 609 pages
  • David A. Yetman: The Opatas: 'In Search of a Sonoran People', University of Arizona Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0816528974 , 368 pages
  • Jean B Johnson: The Opata: 'An inland tribe of Sonora', University of New Mexico, 1950