Apache

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sigesh, an unmarried Apache woman (photography by Edward Curtis , ca.1907 )
Apache-speaking tribal groups (18th century): Ch: Chiricahua Apache, M: Mescalero Apache, J: Jicarilla Apache, L: Lipan Apache, Pl: Plains Apache (Kiowa Apache), WA: Western Apache, N: Navajo (Diné)
Today's reservations of the Apaches, Navajo (Diné) or with a large Apache population

The Apaches ([ aˈpaʧə, aˈpaxə ]), German also Apache , are six culturally and linguistically related tribal groups of the southern Athapasques in the southwest of the United States and in the north of Mexico . In the past, the Navajo (Diné) were also counted among the Apaches ; however, these developed a separate identity and are now generally regarded as a separate ethnic group .

The Apache are now generally the Western Apache , Chiricahua Apache , Mescalero Apache , Jicarilla Apache , Lipan Apache and Kiowa Apache (Plains Apache) .

The Apaches as well as the Navajo (Diné) speak (languages) seven different mutually understandable Southathapaskan Apache languages , which belong to the Athapaskan languages from the Na-Dené language family . Linguistically, they are thus related to the Dene in the north and northwest of Canada and the Alaska Dene of the Northern Athapasques.

In contrast to Cheyenne or Navajo (Diné), the Apaches never had a political or military idea of ​​a common nation or a common tribal identity; Although they identified themselves as Apaches based on the common language (and excluded the Navajo here), the individual tribal groups, however, developed different cultures and sometimes fought one another.

Often the Kiowa Apache (Plains Apache) , which linguistically belongs to the Apaches, are not regarded as Apaches because they are culturally and politically part of the Kiowa .

Today there are a total of nine federally recognized tribes of the Apaches; Five of these in Arizona (Western Apache, two together with Yavapai) and two in New Mexico (Jicarilla Apache, Mescalero Apache - consisting of Mescalero, Chiricahua and Lipan Apache) on reservations and two more in Oklahoma (Chiricahua Apache, Kiowa Apache / Plains Apache - with some Lipan Apache) without own land. In addition, there are three state recognized tribes of the Apaches in Texas (Lipan Apache), Louisiana (Choctaw, Lipan Apache and Adai) and in Alabama (Choctaw, Muskogee, Chickasaw, Cherokee and Chiricahua Apache). Most now live outside the reservations , some live in cities, others work as migrant or seasonal workers in the agricultural centers of southern California ; today, therefore, thousands of Apaches live in the Coachella Valley , Imperial Valley and Colorado River Valley .

Names

Origin of the name Apache

The tribal name commonly used today as Apache was adopted from Spanish in English (and later in other languages); however, the origin of the name is uncertain and controversial.

The most widely accepted doctrine today is that the word comes from the Shiwi'ma , the language of the Zuni (A: shiwi) , a Pueblo people who called the enemy Southern Athapasques - especially the Navajo - advancing from the north to the south-west A: bachu / ʔa · paču (singular: Bachu / Paču "enemy, stranger"). Another possibility is that the enemy Quechan (Yuma) referred to the allied Yavapai and Apache as E-patch ("Fighting Men" or "Those who Fight") or, due to the typical war paint of the Yavapai, as Apatieh (" Raccoon ") . However, the name could also come from two words of the Yavapai - whose language, like that of Quechan, belongs to the Cochimí-Yuma languages -: --pačə ("enemy") or Abaja ("the people"), the Guwevkabaya 's own name / Kwevkepaya or Southeastern Yavapai of the Fort McDowell Reservation.

The first known written mention of the tribal name Apache in Spanish was made by Juan de Oñate in 1598; therefore the origin from the language of the Zuñi and Yavapai is still controversial, as Oñate knew the name and had it written down before he first met these two peoples during the Second Oñate Expedition in 1604.

Another - but not very convincing - origin could come directly from Spanish: mapache ("raccoon") or apachurrar ("smash, crush"), which could refer to the fighting technique with war clubs popular with the Apache.

Initially, the Spaniards designated "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navajo) in the 1620s as Southern Athapasques in the Chama region east of the San Juan River ; however, since the 1640s they began to differentiate between the actual Navajo and the rest of the Apache; so that soon the addition “de Nabajo” was dropped and “Apache” became the name of the Southern Athapasques, which did not develop into the Navajo (Diné) .

Depending on their dialect, like many indigenous peoples, they called themselves simply Indee, Ndee, Nndee (Tonto Apache, Cibecue Apache and White Mountain Apache), Innee, Nnēē (Arivaipa / Aravaipa Apache and Pinaleño / Pinal Apache), T'Inde, Dinde , Didé (Jicarilla Apache), Inday, Indee, Ndé (Mescalero Apache), Nde, Ne, Néndé, Héndé, Hen-de (Chiricahua Apache), Tindi, Ndé, Indeh (Lipan Apache) or as Dené, Dìndé, N- deh, Inde (Kiowa Apache / Plains Apache), which literally simply means “people”.

Historical usage of the term Apache

In the past, Wi: pukba / Wipukepa ("Northeastern Yavapai") were usually referred to as Mohave-Apache (Apache-Mojave) and together with the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya ("Southeastern Yavapai") as Tonto Apache or Tonto for short , as they are often in bilingual bands lived with Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache and, in addition to the language, had also adopted a lot of Apache culture. The Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya ("Western Yavapai") were called Yuma-Apache (Apache-Yuma) together with the Hualapai (Walapai) and Havasupai . Historically and in older specialist literature, the Yavapai are usually referred to as Apache Mohave (Apache-Mojave), Yavapai-Apache or simply Apache , since in northern Mexico and in the southwest of the USA the word "Apache" is often used to denote "hostile, warlike, predatory Indians “was used without linguistic, ethnic and cultural differentiation ( Mohave (Mojave) and even Comanche were previously referred to as Apache).

Apache tribal areas

The Apache tribes immigrated in the 14th and 15th centuries together with the Navajo (Diné) from the north, presumably via the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains into what is now the southwestern United States and north of Mexico. Their tribal areas were called Apachería by the Spaniards (Mexicans) and from the middle of the 18th century comprised a huge area of ​​land in the east and south of Arizona , large parts of New Mexico , the south of Colorado , the west and south-west of Texas and large areas of the adjacent areas States of Sonora , Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León and Tamaulipas in northern Mexico.

The tribal area, then known as Gran Apachería , once extended further north and east to the Southern Plains and High Plains of Colorado, Kansas , Oklahoma and Texas. After moving to the Southern Plains from the north and west (from around 1700 to 1780), the Comanche and their tribal Ute formed an alliance with the Wichita (from 1740) that gave them access to French weapons, ammunition and markets , and began with other Texan tribes ( Pawnee , Caddo , Tonkawa , Hasinai , Jumano and others), who suffered from the raids of the mounted Apaches, the Mescalero Apache, Jicarilla Apache and Lipan Apache, who mostly lived as semi-nomads, relentlessly.

Several bands of the named Apaches were partially destroyed or blown up and had to reorganize and largely withdraw from the Southern Plains and High Plains to the south and west; the Mescalero retreated mainly to areas west of the Pecos River and crossed the Rio Grande to the south, the Lipan Apache first retreated south of the Colorado River in central Texas to the Edwards Plateau (1720 to 1750). They later moved to the Texas Coastal Bend on the Gulf of Mexico in the extreme south. From 1751 they too began to cross the Rio Grande to Mexico in large numbers. After a major defeat, the Jicarilla Apache had to cross the Rio Grande to the west for the most part and seek refuge in the Rocky Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado near the Pueblo and in Spanish settlements. Only a few bands were able to partially maintain or regain their territories and now inhabited the outskirts of the Southern Plains - which now largely belonged to the Comanchería - and bison hunt was only possible under danger.

In the north of Mexico, some tribes were soon unable to offer any resistance to the Apaches advancing south and looking for a new home and either had to give up their former tribal areas (e.g. the Sobaipuri , Toboso , Coahuiltec, etc.), or take refuge in Spanish missions (several smaller coasts - and desert tribes in southwest Texas and northeast Mexico), settle in permanent settlements near Presidios ( Opata , Upper Pima , Lower Pima , Sobaipuri) or join the Apaches ( Suma , Jocome , Jumano , Toboso). Around 1830 the Apachería had reached its greatest expansion to the south and west and the Lipan Apache and Mescalero Apache even occupied some areas again along the Colorado River in Texas.

history

Spanish-Indian alliances against the Apaches

The Spanish conquistador Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was perhaps the first white man to encounter Apache Indians in 1540 . In 1598 his compatriot Juan de Oñate met them. He was the first to adopt the Zuni term Apachù ('enemy') as 'Apache'.

With the involuntary introduction of the horse by the Spaniards after the Pueblo uprising of 1680, the mobility and the radius of action of the Apache groups increased enormously. From the Arkansas River in southern Colorado in the north to the Mexican states of Sonora , Sinaloa , Chihuahua , Coahuila , Durango and Jalisco in the south, from the Colorado River in the west to central and south Texas in the east, the Apaches plundered Indian and white possessions alike . Thousands of Indians and whites were killed and kidnapped, and entire areas were depopulated. This enabled the Apaches to largely keep the Spaniards and Mexicans out of their area, which the Spaniards called Apacheria .

For mutual protection and to isolate the Apaches, the Spaniards and later the Mexicans formed alliances with the Pima , Opata , Tarahumara , Pueblo, Wichita , Caddo , Ute and from 1786 with the Comanche . In return for the Indian support, the Spaniards and Mexicans opened their markets to Indian products and goods and supplied the tribes with weapons and logistical support in their battles against the Apaches.

After fierce battles against Spaniards and their Indian allies, the forced integration into the anti-Apache alliance of the Jicarilla Apache and, from 1793, the Navajo and, thanks to Spanish support, the increasingly stronger Comanche, many bands (English " tribal groups ") of the Asking Apaches for peace. Several southern groups of the Chiricahua , the southern Mescalero in Coahuila and Chihuahua as well as large groups of the Lipan were defeated, in 1790 the Spaniards drove fleeing Mescalero north to the Comancheria, where the Comanche (Spanish according to information) killed more than 300 Mescalero. The resulting approx. 400 Chiricahua were settled in the Opata Presidio Bacoachi and forced to serve as scouts against Chiricahua who were still fighting as well as the Western Apaches , the Mescalero (approx. 3000 were in the Presidio between 1790 and 1796 del Norte and other Chihuahua presidios) and Lipan had to serve as scouts against the northern groups, the tribal Mescalero and Lipan living in the mountains of New Mexico and the plains of west and southwest Texas. In 1798 about 800-900 Chihenne settled in San Buenaventura after they were attacked several times by Spaniards and Comanche as well as Chiricahua scouts and suffered great losses. Between 1790 and 1800 more and more Apaches surrendered and either settled in so-called peace settlements (Spanish: 'establecimiento de paz' ​​or 'campos de paz apaches'), where they had to farm and needed a passport if they went hunting wanted or assured the Spaniards to live peacefully in their respective territories and not to rob other Indians. In 1793 there were eight establecimiento de paz , in which about 2000 Apaches were settled - although most Mescalero left their campos de paz apaches again in 1796 , they behaved relatively peacefully in the following years. Since the approximately 3,000 Diné and the Comanche kept their promises and the latter continued to support the Spaniards in the fight against free, predatory Apaches, the Spanish northern provinces experienced a peace they had never experienced before.

Independence of Mexico and the collapse of the northern border

Relative peace lasted until 1820, when the Mexicans took control of the area during the War of Independence against Spain (1810-1822). They had financial problems and stopped delivering food. The Apaches soon resumed their old way of life and again attacked the settlements along the northern border and deep in Mexico. Soon they had restored their supremacy in southern Texas, in the Bolsón de Mapimí, and in their Mexican settlements. Since Mexico did not have the financial and human resources like the viceroyalty of New Spain , the presidios had to defend the northern border and the hinterland against the invading Apaches with fewer and poorly equipped soldiers. In addition, the Comanche were no longer ready to provide auxiliary troops against the Apaches, since they had definitely noticed the weakness of the Mexicans, and now undertook brutal raids on their part. The Río Conchos formed a virtual line, east of which the Comanche, some Mescalero and the Lipan robbed. West of the Rio Conchos, Mescalero, Chiricahua and Western Apaches stole.

In 1835 the Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua reintroduced premiums on Apache scalps in order to master the "Apache problem". For a warrior (aged 14 and over) you received 100 pesos, for a woman 50 and for a child 25; later other states passed similar laws and the amount of scalp premiums was increased several times. During these disputes, individual Mexican states repeatedly concluded treaties with various Apaches, offered this protection from persecution by the army and allowed the bands access to their markets in order to exchange loot and products for weapons, ammunition, coffee, sugar and other goods.

The commander of the Northern Presidio Line, Don Ignacio Zúniga, estimated that between 1820 and 1835 alone, the Apaches killed around 5,000 Mexicans, destroyed 100 settlements and forced more than 4,000 settlers to leave the region. With the exception of Tucson and Tubac , which were protected by troops , all of northern Sonora and large parts of northern Mexico were ranchos despoblados . In 1848 the Apaches even took the important city of Fronteras and held it against the Mexicans for several months.

Americans take over the northern areas of the Apacheria

When the US later took over former Mexican territories, the Apaches fought fierce fighting for the US Army. The "Apache Wars" (1850–1890) were the longest and most costly wars in the US in the 19th century - alongside the Civil War . Many of their leaders became famous because of the high losses of soldiers and civilians, the difficulties in the field, the speed, cunning and cruelty of the Apaches and their desperate and long-lasting resistance. It was not until the end of the 19th century that the last Apaches capitulated and moved to reservations . The last attacks by small Apache groups took place in 1930 on settlements and emigrants in northern Mexico.

History in the 20th century

As recently as the early 20th century, Apache children were separated from their parents and given to white US citizens for adoption. Today, grandchildren or great-grandchildren only learn this from oral tradition, when an Apache child was old enough to remember.

Society and internal structure

Social and political organization

The Apaches were not organized centrally and did not form “ tribes ” in the real sense. The highest organizational unit was the band (group) , which is usually in local groups (English, local bands ) divided. The local group in turn consisted of several matrilocal and matrilineal Gotah ( large families ). In a band , every member was related to most, if not all, of the others. The single Gotah in turn consisted of several Kowa ( Wickiups or Tipis ) individual families that formed a rancheria .

Local groups came together especially in winter or to organize a hunt, collecting, processing and preserving berries and wild plants as well as for cultural and religious occasions. Campaigns were mostly undertaken by local groups or even the whole band , these could often include between 100 and 200 warriors. In contrast to the military campaigns, raids were organized by only one or more gotah ('extended family') and usually consisted of only 10 to 30 warriors.

The Apache warriors were not obliged to obey a chief (nantan), but instead joined influential men (and occasionally women) who were prestigious for their wealth, skills, personal persuasiveness, and diyah ('strength'). Most of the time, therefore, the leaders were also medicine men (diyin). In addition to Diya, some women and men also had Inda-ce-ho-ndi ('Enemies-Against-Power'), which enabled them to locate enemies, to name their number and to damage them with their power. There were also women warriors, such as Lozen ('skillful horse thief ') or Gouyen ('wise woman'), who either refused to marry or who accompanied their husbands on wars and raids.

religion

“Dance of the Mountain Spirits”, still an important element of the Apache cultures

The ethnic religion of the Apaches is based on a complex mythology in which numerous spirits occur. Human- like cultural heroes such as the white-painted woman and her son, the water child, as well as the mountain spirits Ga'an have an important meaning. Such spirits - which are also seen in rocks, trees or the wind - are considered to be the souls of the ancestors, so that they - or their appearances - must be treated with respect (see also: Holy Mount Graham ) . The latter are represented by the dancers in various mask dances, for example at the four-day puberty ceremony for girls, as a rain dance or for healing rituals. Water is considered to be a strong spiritual force with which one can wash off demons, for example. From a religious point of view, young women are considered particularly powerful. Singing, drumming, and dancing are the main ways to communicate with the transcendent . The belief in animal guardian spirits, on the other hand, which was otherwise found almost everywhere in North America, did not exist among the Apaches.

The traditional Apaches see themselves, nature and the spiritual powers as creatures of the high god Ussen . The most important role in everyday spirituality and ceremonies, however, is played by the belief in the impersonal, supernatural diyi 'forces that are localized in all natural phenomena and living beings. People who can control certain powers of it are called Diyin - "holy people" or "medicine people". They either got it as a "gift" or acquired it in a vision search . They use their power as priests in ceremonies and as healers by reciting texts, singing holy songs or making meditative, symbolic sand pictures . As a rule, these practices are used to restore a disturbed balance of strength, to heal the sick and to fight evil witches .

The Christianization of the Apaches (as well as the Navaho ) used to take place only very slightly due to the nomadic way of life and therefore started very late. Many traditional Apaches still perform the traditional rituals today. According to the ongoing surveys by the evangelical-fundamentalist conversion network Joshua Project , around 20 percent of all Apaches profess the traditional religion.

Demographics

The Western Apache were with 4,500 to 5,000 members of the largest and most populous group among the Apaches, and of this only 25 percent able-bodied men were and the rest of women (35 percent) and children (40 percent). The White Mountain Apache, numbering around 1500, were the largest and most powerful group of the Western Apache with around 375 warriors, while the Cibecue Apache represented the second largest group with around 1000 members (around 250 warriors). The San Carlos Apache and Southern Tonto Apache each had 900 tribal members (with 225 warriors each), so that the Northern Tonto Apache with around 450 members (and around 110 warriors) formed the smallest group. Together the Western Apache were able to provide around 1200 warriors.

In the 1860s, the Chiricahua Apache numbered around 3,000 tribe members and raised around 750 warriors. As a result of the constant fighting with Mexicans and Americans as well as neighboring tribes, the number of Chiricahua slowly decreased, so that in the 1870s they were able to provide about 600 warriors, divided into the four independently acting bands : Chihenne (about 175 warriors), Chokonen (about 150 warriors), Southern Chiricahua (about 150 warriors) and the Bedonkohe as the smallest group (about 125 warriors).

At the beginning of the 19th century there were only around 1800 Jicarilla Apache with around 450 warriors. Around 1840, the Jicarilla, which had also been worn out by constant wars, was only estimated to have 800 to 1200 tribal members and around 200 to 300 warriors.

Around 1700 it was estimated that there were around 6,000 Lipan Apache that could provide around 1,500 warriors. After hard battles against the Spaniards and Comanche, however, it was believed around 1750 that there were only 3000 to 4000 Lipan Apache left, with 750 to 1000 warriors. After severe smallpox epidemics and an alliance of the Spaniards with the Comanche and other south-western tribes aimed at the extermination of the Lipan Apache, which led to several severe defeats on the part of the Lipan Apache, these were estimated at around 2000 (500 warriors), in 1845 at around 1500 ( 375 warriors), around 350 (90 warriors) in 1865 and 35 tribe members in 1913.

It is estimated that before the Americans invaded the southwest, there were 2,500 to 3,000 Mescalero Apaches that could bring about 625 to 750 warriors.

In 1840 there were around 15,000, in 1906 only 6,000. The US census of 2000 names 96,833 Apaches, of which around 31,000 are of mixed ethnic origin. The figure of 1840 is most likely an exaggeration by the Spaniards and Mexicans, whose estimates ranged up to 30,000 people - apparently all Apaches together never had more than 10,000 heads.

Personalities

Chiefs and leaders

Celebrities of the present

Karl May's Winnetou

Due to the fact that Gabriel Ferry , a French writer, had already chosen a Comanche as the hero of his adventure stories, the writer Karl May felt compelled to declare his noble Indian Winnetou to belong to another Indian people. He chose, not without ulterior motives, the mortal enemies of the Comanches, namely the Apaches, and thereby gave his fictional character the identity of a Mescalero .

In addition to May's books, the Karl May films of the 1960s are a not insignificant cause of this interest. According to his own statements, it was the merit of the French actor Pierre Brice to repeatedly import a bit more authenticity into the portrayal of this Indian figure, be it by choosing a costume or by influencing the plot. Also because of the popularity of this actor, representatives of the North American Indians came to Bad Segeberg , where the actor was named honorary chief.

However, there never was a “greatest chief of the Apaches”. The Apaches lived and hunted in local groups with respective leaders. Winnetou also goes into this in the series My Friend Winnetou , when he points out that the word "chief" is a word of the whites and that he cannot expect to be heard by the Chiricahua Apaches because he is Mescalero.

Film adaptations

  • 1954: Apache (German title: Massai, the great Apache), director: Robert Aldrich ; Leading Actors: Burt Lancaster ; Synopsis: Maasai, an Apache , refuses in the 19th century to move to a reservation with the rest of his clan , which he sees as imprisonment. For a long time he offers armed resistance, but for the sake of his pregnant companion he tries to start a new life with her in the mountains. There, however, he is tracked down by troops and whether there will be a happy ending remains open until the last minute.
  • In 1973/74 DEFA made the feature films Apaches and Ulzana , which deal with the life of the Apaches, especially that of chief Ulzana . The endeavor of the Indians to live together peacefully with their white neighbors and to feed themselves on agriculture, as well as the bloody suppression of this undertaking, are documented in the two films in a gripping, but nevertheless as historical as possible.
  • 1993: Geronimo : An American Legend. One of the last of at least 20 films in the 20th century that are more or less adaptations of parts of Geronimo's life .

Others

  • A black gem , a form of obsidian , is called "Apache's tear" or "Apache's tear".
  • A well-known nonsense verse by Robert Gernhardt reads: Paulus wrote to the Apatschen: "You shouldn't clap after the sermon."
  • The Hughes AH-64 attack helicopter bears the name and the slang term "Apache".
  • The Apache HTTP Server web server was named that out of respect for the tribe.
  • A German-Turkish rapper calls himself Apache 207 (* 1997)

See also

literature

  • Edwin R. Sweeney: Mangas Coloradas. Chief of the Chiricahua Apaches . University of Oklahoma Press, Norman OK 1998, ISBN 0-8061-3063-6 , ( The Civilization of the American Indian Series 231).
  • Donald E. Worcester: The Apaches: Eagles of the Southwest. Econ Verlag, Düsseldorf et al. 1982, ISBN 3-430-19854-2 .
  • Alys Swan-Jackson: Apaches. The Apaches and the Pueblo Indians of the southwest . Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1996, ISBN 3-86070-547-4 , ( look into history ).
  • Nikolaus Baumhauer: The Apaches. Volume 1: The Origin of Rivalry . Publishing house for American studies, Wyk auf Föhr 1993, ISBN 3-924696-88-8 .
  • Helge Ingstad: The last Apaches . Hans von Hugo Verlag, Berlin 1940.
  • Ian W. Record: Big Sycamore Stands Alone: ​​The Western Apaches, Aravaipas, and the Struggle for Place , University of Oklahoma Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-8061-3972-2 .
  • Eve Ball: Indeh: An Apache Odyssey , University of Oklahoma Press, 1988, ISBN 0-8061-2165-3
  • James L. Haley: Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait , University of Oklahoma Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8061-2978-6
  • Grenville Goodwin: Western Apache Raiding & Warfare , Ed .: Keith H. Basso, University of Arizona Press, 1971, ISBN 0-8165-0297-8 .
  • Thomas A. Britton: The Lipan Apaches: People of Wind and Lightning , University of New Mexico Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-8263-4586-8 .
  • Nancy McGown Minor: The Light Gray People: An Ethno-History of the Lipan Apaches of Texas and northern Mexico , University Press of America, 2009, ISBN 978-0-7618-4854-7 .
  • Nancy McGown Minor: Turning Adversity to Advantage: A History of the Lipan Apaches of Texas and northern Mexico, 1700-1900 , University of America, 2009, ISBN 978-0-7618-4859-2 .
  • CL Sonnichsen: The Mescalero Apaches , University of Oklahoma Press, 1973, ISBN 0-8061-1615-3 .
  • José Cortéz: Views from the Apache Frontier: Report on the northern Provinces of New Spain. Ed .: Elizabeth AH John, University of Oklahoma Press, 1989, ISBN 0-8061-2609-4 .
  • Maria F. Wade: The Native Americans of the Edwards Plateau, 1582-1799. University of Texas Press, 2003, ISBN 0-292-79156-9 .
  • F. Todd Smith: From Dominance to Disappearance: The Indians of Texas and the Near Southwest, 1786-1859. University of Nebraska Press, 2005, ISBN 0-8032-4313-8 .
  • Scott Zesch: The Captured: A True Story of Abduction by Indians on the Texas Frontier , St. Martin's Press, 2004, ISBN 0-312-31787-5 .
  • Timothy Braatz: Surviving Conquest: A History of the Yavapai Peoples , Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska, 2003, ISBN 0-8032-2242-4 .
  • Anka G. Krämer de Huerta: Places of Power. On the meaning and conception of sacred places among the Western Apaches. , LIT Verlag, bayreuther forum transit 12, 2011, ISBN 978-3-643-11109-8 .
  • Anka G. Krämer de Huerta: Secret machinations. Mount Graham, Apaches, and the intelligence agencies' espionage programs. In: Coyote 99, 2013/4, p. 34, ISSN  0939-4362 .

Web links

Commons : Apache  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Harassing the Western Apaches, 1782-1792
  2. ↑ Propr. Presidio del Norte de la Junta de los Ríos and Presidio de Belén was the name of both a presidio and the associated settlement on the southern bank of the Rio Grande at La Junta de los Ríos, today's Ojinaga , Chihuahua
  3. ↑ Donald E. Worcester: The Apaches: Eagles of the Southwest. University of Oklahoma Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8061-2397-4 , p. 26.
  4. ^ Peace With the Western Apaches, 1793-1821
  5. ^ History of Arizona: Early Spanish Missions and Missionaries and Military Annals. P. 72.
  6. ↑ a b c Kelly S. Meier: The Beliefs of the Apache Native Americans . Demand Media, accessed December 19, 2015.
  7. ↑ Barry M. Pritzker: A Native American Encyclopedia. History, Culture and Peoples. Oxford University Press, New York 2000, ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1 . P. 10.
  8. ↑ Wolfgang Lindig et al. Mark Münzel: The Indians. Cultures and history of the Indians of North, Central and South America. dtv, Munich 1978, ISBN 3-423-04317-X . P. 211.
  9. ^ Keith H. Basso: Western Apache Witchcraft. No. 15 of the Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona , University of Arizona Press, Tucson (USA) 1969, ISBN 0-8165-0142-4 . Pp. 30-32.
  10. ^ Suzanne J. Crawford: American Indian Religious Traditions: AI. Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2005, ISBN 978-1-57607-517-3 . Pp. 1047-1048.
  11. ↑ Christian F. Feest : Animated Worlds - The religions of the Indians of North America. In: Small Library of Religions , Vol. 9, Herder, Freiburg / Basel / Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-451-23849-7 . Pp. 130, 187.
  12. ↑ Joshua Project: United States ( March 3, 2016 memento in the Internet Archive ) - Jicarilla, Kiowa-Apache, Mescalero and Western Apache, accessed December 19, 2015.
  13. ↑ FAQ on apache.org