Yavapai

Today's Indian reservations in the American Southwest

The Yavapai are an Indian people in the southwest of the USA and, linguistically, culturally and geographically, together with the related Hualapai (Walapai) and Havasupai, belong to the group of the highland Yuma (Upland Yuma) or Northern Pai in the northwest, southwest and western central Arizona .

The Northern Pai originally lived on the Upper Colorado River north of the mighty and warlike Quechan (Yuma) in Arizona and moved eastward into the canyon lands and canyons of the Colorado Plateau, including the Grand Canyon , long before the first conquistadors set foot in what is now the southwestern United States . According to traditional tradition, two separate tribal groups emerged from this original group due to internal disputes, which were now also hostile to each other: the Yavapai, who moved further into southwest and south-central Arizona, and the Hualapai (Walapai), who stayed in the northeast and north.

It was only with the establishment of the Havasupai Reserve in the 1880s for the Havasooa Pa'a / Hav'su Ba: Local group of the Hualapai (Walapai), who had previously withdrawn deeper and deeper into the canyons for protection, that these gradually did not begin identify more than Hualapai (Walapai), but as an independent tribe .

language

Their language, the Yavapai , belongs together with the closely related Havasupai-Hualapai (highland Yuma) of the Havasupai and Hualapai to the highland Yuma (northern Pai) branch of the Pai or northern Yuma subgroup of the so-called actual. Yuma languages ​​of the Cochimí-Yuma language family , which is often counted among the Hoka languages . Their language is divided into four dialects according to the four tribal groups of the Yavapai :

• Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya dialect (Western dialect)
• Yavbe '/ Yavepe dialect (Northwestern, Central, or Prescott dialect)
• Guwevkabaya / Kewevkapaya dialect (Southern or Southeastern dialect)
• Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya dialect (Northeastern or Verde Valley dialect)

The Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya and Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya of the Yavapai often lived together with bands of the Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache of the Western Apache , but each of the dialect variants of the Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati') of the southern Apache languages ​​of the Speak the Athapaskan language from the Na Dené language family .

These mixed Yavapai-Apache bands were mostly bilingual - and thus spoke both Yavapai and Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati'), membership of either the Yavapai or the Apache was based on the respective mother tongue ; and thus the Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya and Guwevkabaya / Kewevkapaya dialects had a strong Apache accent and the Tonto (Dilzhę́'é) dialect (as well as two idioms of the San Carlos Apache dialect) had a strong Yavapai accent and therefore have in In contrast to the other variants of the Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati') a distinctive and for other Apache sounding speech melody , which is often referred to as "Singsang".

Today, of around 1,500 Yavapai, around 100 to 150 mostly older tribesmen speak their mother tongue (Golla 2007) and around 1,000 tribesmen of the Tonto Apache speak the Tonto or Dilzhę́'é dialect (as of 2007), with the Northern Tonto idiom is spoken in two reservations shared with Yavapai (the Yavapai-Apache Nation Indian Reservation (formerly Camp Verde) and Yavapai-Prescott Indian Reservation) and the Southern Tonto idiom in the Tonto Apache Reservation and in the Fort McDowell Indian Reservation, which is also shared with Yavapai and in two reservations dominated by other Western Apache tribes (the San Carlos Apache and Fort Apache Indian Reservations). Although there are descendants of Northern Tonto Apache in the San Carlos and Fort Apache Indian Reservations, there are no speakers of the Northern Tonto idiom among them today. Elderly Yavapai and Tonto Apache tribesmen are bilingual.

Naming

Culturally and often also linguistically, the various groups of the Yavapai have adopted a lot from the neighboring tribes - so that the Yavapai were often mistakenly viewed by Spaniards / Mexicans and later Americans as subgroups of these tribes.

The Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya ( "Western Yavapai") were, as they close cultural and linguistic contacts and bonds with Quechan (Yuma), Mohave (Mojave) and Cocopa along the Colorado River often talked as Yuma Apache or Apache Yuma designated . The Hualapai (Walapai) and Havasupai were also referred to as Yuma-Apache (Apache-Yuma) .

The Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya ("Northeastern Yavapai") were mostly referred to as Mohave-Apache (Apache-Mojave) , sometimes simply Tonto Apache , as they usually formed bilingual groups with groups of the southern Athapaskan Northern Tonto Apache .

The Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya ("Southeastern Yavapai") also often lived together with groups of the South Athapaskan Southern Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache in bilingual groups, since they had also adopted a lot of Apache culture in addition to the language, they were simply called Tonto Called Apache .

The Yavbe '/ Yavapé ("Northwestern Yavapai" or "Central Yavapai") are often referred to as real Yavapai , as they were almost not culturally influenced by neighboring peoples - and mostly only had contact with other Yavapai.

Another group of Yavapai were the Mađqwadabaya / Matakwadapaya ("desert people") or Mahtagwatapaya ("red dirt people"), who wandered between Tucson and the Crater Ranger until the end of the 18th century (Coder, 2006), later closed they either joined neighboring Yavapai groups or settled under River Yuma groups (Mohave / Mojave and Quechan / Yuma). Today they have lost their identity as a separate group - however, several Mohave and Quechan families trace their roots back to Mađqwadabaya-Yavapai .

Often within the Northern Pai (Yavapai, Hualapai and Havasupai) the Hualapai (Walapai) and Havasupai are differentiated as northeastern Pai from the southern Yavapai; Since the forced settlement in two reservations - the Hualapai Indian Reservation in the west and the Havasupai Indian Reservation in the east of the originally common tribal area - the Hualapai (Walapai) are referred to as Western Pai and the Havasupai as Eastern Pai .

Origin and meaning of the name Yavapai

The meaning and origin of the name Yavapai is unclear and controversial, it may come from two Yavapai words: Enyaleva ("sun") and Pai ("person") or Paya ("people"), which roughly ("people." the sun, that is, people in the east ”) means; the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya ("Southeastern Yavapai") claim the name derives from Yawepe ("Crooked Mouth People" - "People with crooked, ie grim mouth") (Handbook of American Indians, Hodge, 1907, 1910) or (" insulted, huffed people "), d. H. (“People who do not get along with other peoples”) (Gifford 1936).

Neighboring Yuma-speaking peoples all had similar names for the Yavapai: the Mohave living west of the Colorado River called them Enyaéva-pai and the Quechan (Yuma) Yav'apai , the Maricopa living south also Yavˀi pay and the northern living Hualapai (Walapai ) and Havapai as N'avpeˀ / N'avpeˀe , which roughly means ("People of the (rising) sun, i.e. people in the east").

The Yavapai, on the other hand, called the Hualapai and Havasupai Matávĕkĕ-Paya / Täbkĕpáya ("people in the north", according to Corbusier) or Páxuádo ameti ("people far downstream", according to Gatchet ), which in turn referred to the Yavapai simply Ji'wha ("The Enemy") - the largest and southernmost large group (sub-tribe) of the Hualapai was also known as the Yavapai Fighters .

Like many indigenous peoples, they referred to themselves as Pa, 'Ba :, Pai, Báy, Pe, Apa ("person, human") or Paya, Paia, Pa'a,' Ba: a, Pa ' , depending on the dialect. a, Apaja, Abaja ("the people of ..." or "the people").

Historical and other names

The Hopi, on the other hand, called all Northern Pai (Yavapai, Hualapai and Havasupai) Co'on / Coconino ("Wood Killers"), the name referring to the way they cut the branches off the trees with axes. The hostile Navajo adopted this name and referred to the Havasupai as Góóhníinii ; however, the Navajo designation for the Havasupai could have the same etymology as Koun'Nde / Go'hn ("wild, rough people") of the Western Apache , who so designated the Yavapai and their Tonto-Apache relatives.

The O'Odham (Upper Pima) , suffering from the raids of the allied Yavapai and Western Apache, called all the Northern Pai as well as the Apache and Opata simply Ohp or O'Ob ("enemies").

The first Spanish explorers distinguished three Yavapai groups; the "Northeastern Yavapai" were called cruzados because they wore reed crosses on their foreheads that were attached to a curl; the "Southeastern Yavapai", however, were referred to as Nijoras and the "Western Yavapai" as Tejunas .

Other common names used by the Spaniards (and Mexicans) for Yavapai and for the Western Apache, some of whom are related and allied with them, are Garroteros ("club men", after the fighting technique with war clubs popular with the Apache) or Gileños / Apaches de Gila (a collective term for all Apache and non-Apache groups that lived west of the Rio Grande (in southeastern Arizona and western New Mexico) and along the Gila River or the Gila Mountains; some of the so-called Gila Apaches, however, belonged to the Bedonkohe Band and the Copper Mines local group of the Chihenne Band of the Chiricahua Apache ; after 1722, however, the Spaniards named Gileños only the present-day White Mountain Apache and Akimel O'Odham (Pima) as "Gileños").

However, since the Americans later extended the term Gileños or Gila Apaches to almost all Apache groups west of the Rio Grande, the Yavapai-related Tonto Apache and the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache and Arivaipa / Aravaipa bands of the San Carlos Apache were also used under this collective term summarized; the Yavapai were therefore often referred to simply as the Yabipais Gileños .

Later, however, all Yavapai were referred to by Spaniards, Mexicans and Americans mostly as Mohave Apache (Apache-Mojave) , Yuma-Apache (Apache-Yuma) , Yavapai-Apache , Tonto Apache or simply as Apache , as in northern Mexico and in the southwest of the USA the word Apache was often used to denote "hostile, warlike, predatory Indians", without linguistic, ethnic and cultural differentiation (also Mohave (Mojhave) and even Comanche were previously referred to as Apache). In historical specialist literature and in adventure novels (as in Karl May : Nijjorras Apatschen) these misleading terms are still used; however, the origin of the now commonly used tribal name Apache for all tribes and groups of the Southern Athapasques - except the Navajo - is uncertain and controversial.

Origin of the name Apache

The most widely accepted doctrine today is that the word comes from the Shiwi'ma , the language of the Zuni (A: shiwi) , a Pueblo people who called the enemy Southern Athapasques - especially the Navajo - advancing from the north to the south-west A: bachu / ʔa · paču (singular: Bachu / Paču - "enemy, stranger"). Another possibility is that the enemy Quechan (Yuma) referred to the allied Yavapai and Apache as E-patch ("Fighting Men" or "Those who Fight") or, due to the typical war paint of the Yavapai, as Apatieh (" Raccoon ") . However, the name could also be derived from two words of the Yavapai - their language, like the Quechan is one of the Cochimí-Yuma languages -: ʔpačə ("enemy") or Abaja ("the people"), the self-name of the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya or Southeastern Yavapai of the Fort McDowell Reservation.

The first known written mention of the tribal name Apache in Spanish was made by Juan de Oñate in 1598 ; therefore the origin from the language of the Zuñi and Yavapai is still controversial, as Oñate knew the name and had it written down before he first met these two peoples during the Second Oñate Expedition in 1604 .

Another - but not very convincing - origin could come directly from Spanish: mapache ("raccoon") or apachurrar ("smash, crush"), which could refer to the fighting technique with war clubs popular with the Apache.

Initially, the Spaniards referred to "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navajo) in the 1620s as Southern Athapasques in the Chama region east of the San Juan River ; however, since the 1640s they began to differentiate between the actual Navajo and the rest of the Apache; so that soon the addition “de Nabajo” was dropped and “Apache” was used to designate the Southern Athapasques, which did not develop into the Navajo (Diné) .

Origin of the name Tonto

There - as noted above - the Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya ("Northeastern Yavapai") and the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya ("Southeastern Yavapai") together with the related Northern and Southern Tonto Apache as well as with the Arivaipa / Aravaipa and Pinaleño / Pinal Apache bands of the San Carlos Apache of the Western Apache were mostly bilingual and spoke both Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati') and Yavapai (Highlands Yuma / Northern Pai), their dialect - depending on their mother tongue - has a strong audible Apache -Accent (or Yavapai accent) and therefore, in contrast to the other variants of the Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati'), has a distinctive and for other Apache-sounding speech melody, which is often referred to as "Singsang". Therefore, these Yavapai along with their Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache relatives were referred to by other Western Apache as Dilzhę́'é (literally: "People with high, bright voices"). The hostile Navajo (Diné) also referred to both Yavapai and Tonto Apache as Dilzhʼíʼ dinéʼiʼ and thus explicitly differentiated them from the rest of the Western Apache, whom they called Dziłghą́ʼiʼ ("People of the Mountain Peaks").

Presumably because of their strong accents, the Yavapai (also bilingual they spoke their "mother tongue" with a strong Apache accent and the Western Apache with a Yavapai accent), Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache were both from the Chiricahua Apache and Ben-et -dine or binii? e'dine as well as from the Mescalero Apache, who are closely related to these linguistically and culturally, as Bini 'Adinii or Bínii édinénde ("people without mind"', ie "wild or crazy people" or "those who are not." understands ").

Since most of the local groups of the Yavapai, like their Tonto Apache relatives, practiced little or no agriculture compared to the semi-nomadic Western Apache, but lived mostly as hunters and gatherers in inaccessible areas remote from most trade routes, Tonto Apache and Yavapai became by these also called Koun'Nde or Go'hn ("wild, rough people"). The Spaniards (and later Americans) probably adopted this name and called the two allied tribes (Tonto Apache and Yavapai) therefore Tonto ("stupid, wild").

The Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache called themselves just like the other Western Apache neither Apache nor Tonto, but simply Indee, Ndee, Nndee or Innee (Nnēē) ("people"). However, the designation Dilzhę́'é was in no way perceived as disrespectful or degrading on the part of the Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache, they often referred to themselves as Dilzhę́'é in order to differentiate themselves from other Western Apache; One reason for this could be that there is also another explanation for the meaning of the name, which literally means “quick-footed or sure-footed” or “hunter”. The Western Apache also found the Chiricahua-Mescalero naming in no way degrading or degrading and also referred to themselves as Ben-et-dine ("people without mind").

residential area

Their tribal area in western and southern central Arizona once comprised approx. 51,800 km² and extended to the Bill Williams River and its tributaries Big Sandy River and Santa Maria River including the Bill Williams Mountains in the north (partly north of these rivers - but these areas were also claimed by the Hualapai), in the northeast to the San Francisco Peaks , as well as along the Agua Fria River eastward including the Verde Valley along the tributaries of the Verde River to the western Tonto Basin in the east, and from the Mazatzal Mountains and the Sierra Ancha southward over the Superstition Mountains , Pinaleno Mountains , Dripping Springs Mountains , Santa Teresa Mountains and Mescal Mountains between the Salt River and Gila River in the southeast, in the southwest to the Castle Dome Mountains near Wickenburg and the confluence of the Gila River and Colorado River and in the west to to the Colorado River . In the north lived the hostile Hualapai (Walapai) and Havasupai, in the northeast, east and southeast the related and allied Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache of the Western Apache, in the south and southwest the enemy Maricopa, Akimel O'Odham and Tohono O'Odham and in the west the Quechan (Yuma), Mohave and Chemehuevi, who are also often allies, and the hostile Halchidhoma.

Sociopolitical organization of the Yavapai

The Yavapai should not be imagined as a unified tribe, but rather as four large regional bands or regional groups that were linguistically and ethnically related (and recognized this), but never saw themselves as a political or ethnic unit or called themselves "Yavapai". These four regional bands originally differed only slightly in their way of life, culture and language - but in the course of history they each developed a separate identity as Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya and Yavbe '/ Yavapé . These four regional bands (regional groups) entered into various alliances with neighboring tribes for geographical, historical, cultural and family reasons, regardless of the interests of the neighboring Yavapai regional groups. These regional bands (regional groups) divided in turn into several politically autonomous bands or groups (in Yavapai: bachacha ) and these in turn into different local groups (English. Localgroup / tape ) or clan (in Yavapai: tiyuche = " Relatives ”, but only common with the Guwevkabaya). The social and societal basis, however, formed the extended family, which in turn consisted of one or more nuclear families who lived together in a settlement (Spanish rancheria). Hence the members of a band were related to most, if not all, of the others.

In addition, the Yavapai did not know of recognized tribal chiefs who had all-encompassing power over entire groups, such as B. a "chief of the Guwevkabaya" or "chief of the Ɖo: lkabaya". As with the neighboring Apache, only the local groups had elected leaders (in Yavapai: mastava = "without fear" or bamulva = "someone who precedes"). These leaders had prestige that they had acquired through their skills and as warriors. All known leaders of the Yavapai (and the allied Apache) - including the famous Cochise or Mangas Coloradas of the Chiricahua Apache - were only leaders of their own local group - but never chief of all local groups of a band or even chief of all z. B. Tonto Apache or all Guwevkabaya Yavapai (this originated in the imagination of Mexicans and Americans). Some leaders - such as Delshay / Delshe among the Tonto Apache or Wah-poo-eta among the Yavapai - had enormous influence on neighboring local groups, but could not exercise any authority or sign any binding contracts. This was to lead to many tragic misunderstandings and bloodshed - since the Europeans (Spaniards, Mexicans and Americans) assumed (or interpreted them for their benefit) to conclude contracts with a chief of the respective tribal group of the Yavapai (all leaders now adhere to the content of these contracts of the respective band or tribal group). Since a local leader could not sign for all Yavapai (but this was postulated and understood by the Europeans), leaders of neighboring local Yavapai groups felt not bound by the treaty (often they were not even consulted) and continued to operate their own " Politics ", this quickly turned these local groups into breach of contract Indians who had to be fought in the eyes of the Europeans (although the Yavapai were not aware of the breach of contract). For the Yavapai bands, the fact that they were simply viewed as Apache by the Europeans and therefore held responsible for their possible misconduct was made more difficult.

Bands, local groups and clans of the Yavapai

The Yavapai are divided into four regional bands or groups:

Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya or Western Yavapai (also: Tulkepaia ). Lived in the west and southwest and, due to the drought, the least suitable part of the tribal area of ​​the Yavapai for arable farming, as their area was directly east of the Colorado River , they probably took over arable farming through contact with the resident tribes of the River Yuma - they operated most intensively by all Yavapai, their area also included the mountainous region and the river basin of the Hassayampa River (in Yavapai: Hasaya: mvo / Hasayamcho: - "the water seeps away"), in the north of the Bill Williams River , the Big Sandy River and Santa Maria River as well as the Bill Williams Mountains and Santa Maria Mountains and reached in the south to the Gila River in what is now southwest and west of Arizona. Formerly mostly called Yuma-Apache or Apache-Yuma , as they maintained close cultural and linguistic contacts and ties with Quechan (Yuma) , Mohave (Mojave) and Cocopa along the Colorado River.

• Wiltaaykapaya / Wiltaikapaya Band ("People of the two mountains on either side of Salome (in Yavapai: Wiltaika)") or Hakeheelapaya / Hakehelapa Band ("People of the flowing water, i.e. the water in the Harquahala Mountains") lived in the Harquahala Mountains (in Yavapai : Aha: quahala - "the water here is high up in the mountains " or Hakehela - "flowing water") and the Harcuvar Mountains (in Yavapai: Ahakuwa - "Cottonwood tree trunk") on both sides of the CPD Salome, also in the smaller ones Mountain ranges called the Little Harquahala Mountains and Granite Wash Mountains .
• Ha'kahwađbaya / Hakawhatapa Band ("people along the red water / river i.e. the Colorado River") or Mađqwadabaya / Matakwarapa Band ("people of the flat and waterless land, i.e. people of the desert") farmed along the Colorado River in the area around today's ghost towns of La Paz (in Yavapai: Wihela - "moon mountains") and Castle Dome (in Yavapai: Wihopu '- "round mountain") in the Castle Dome Mountains; presumably identical to the already mentioned group Mađqwadabaya / Matakwadapaya ("desert people") no longer existing today - since most of the Tolkepaya descendants live in reservations of the Mohave and the Quechan.
• Hakupakapaya / Hakupakapa Band or Hnyoqapaya / Inyokapa Band inhabited the mountains north of today's Congress and the Weaver Mountains and Date Creek Mountains in the area of ​​today's small town Yarnell , the municipality of Kirkland and the CPD Peeples Valley (in Yavapai: Wachinivo), also along the Upper Hassayampa Creek near the small town of Wickenburg and the region around what is now Hillside .

Yavbe '/ Yavapé or Northwestern Yavapai, Central Yavapai Lived in the area around Prescott (in Yavapai: ʼWi: kwatha Ksikʼita), the Prescott Valley eastwards to Jerome in the Black Hills of Yavapai County including Mingus Mountain (in Yavapai: Hwa: lkyañaña ) and the Bradshaw Mountains to the southwest (in Yavapai: Wi: kañacha) to Williamson (formerly called Williamson Valley) south of the mountains and again eastwards including the Black Canyon (in Yavapai: Ahaytikutoba) in today's Agua Fria National Monument . In the past mostly called Mohave-Apache or Apache-Mojave , often also referred to as real Yavapai , as they were almost not culturally influenced by neighboring peoples.

• Yavbe '/ Yavapé Band Claimed the river basin and the mountains in the Upper Verde Valley (in Vavapai: Matkʼamvaha) including the Montezuma Castle National Monument with the Montezuma Well (in Yavapai: ʼHakthkyayva or Ahagaskiaywa) near the, which the Yavapai considered the mythological birthplace of their people City of Camp Verde (in Yavapai: ʼMatthi: wa; in Western Apache: Gambúdih).
  • Hwaalkyanyanyepaya / Walkeyanyanyepa local group ("People of Mingus Mountain (in Yavapai: Hwa: lkyañaña)"). Inhabited the mesa around what is now Jerome Ward in the Black Hills of Yavapai County between Sedona and Prescott.
• Mathaupapaya Band Inhabited the Bradshaw Mountains from Prescott south to the former mining town of Crown King and the current ghost town of Bumble Bee.
  • Wiikvteepaya / Wikutepa local group ("People of Granite Mountain (in Yavapai: ʼWi: kvte: wa)") Lived in the Sierra Prieta including the northern Bradshaw Mountains in the southeast, between the community of Skull Valley (in Yavapai: Pa: qwawa Kyo) in the west and Prescott in the east and the community of the same name in the Chino Valley about 24 km northeast , today large areas are part of the Prescott National Forest , as the Granite Mountain is the highest peak of the Sierra Prieta, often referred to as Granite Peak Band or Granite Mountain Band known.
  • Wiikenyachapaya / Wikenichapa local group ("People of the rough black mountain range of rocks, i.e. the Bradshaw Mountains (in Yavapai: Wi: kañacha)"). Lived in the southern Bradshaw Mountains (formerly: Silver Mountain Range ) in the area of ​​the former mining town of Crown King, the current ghost town of Bumble Bee and the CPD Black Canyon City , in the southwest to the area around Wickenburg and east of the Bradshaw Mountains along the Middle Agua Fria River ; in English therefore often known as the Black Mountain Band or Crown King Band .

Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya or Northeastern Yavapai (also: Wipuhk'a'bah / Wipukyipaya / Wipukepa - "people from the foot of the red rock i.e. the Red Rock Country" or "Oak Creek Canyon people"). Lived in the Upper and Middle Verde River Valley (in Yavapai: Matkʼamvaha) and in the so-called Red Rock Country around Sedona (in Yavapai: Wipuk), in the Oak Creek Canyon in the Coconino National Forest , along the Fossil Creek and the Verde River (in Yavapai: Haka'he: la - "running water") to today's CPD Rio Verde (near today's Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation ) northeast of Scottsdale in north central Arizona, often formed bilingual local groups with bands from the Northern Tonto Apache , who each had a Yavapai and an Apache name, and their leaders were also bilingual and had both a Yavapai and an Apache name, hence earlier mostly referred to as Mohave-Apache (Apache-Mojave) or simply Tonto Apache .

• Matkitwawipa Band ("People of the Upper Verde River Valley (in Yavapai: Matkʼamvaha)") or in Apache: Tú Dotłʼizh Indee ("People of the blue-green water, ie. People along the Fossil Creeks"); often known in English as the Fossil Creek Band (Apache). Lived in the Upper Verde Valley (in Yavapai: Matkʼamvaha), along the East Verde River, Fossil Creek (in Yavapai: Hakhavsuwa or Vialnyucha), Clear Creek south to the desert foothills around Black Mountain in the Sonoran Desert in the area of ​​the Small towns Carefree and Cave Creek along the Cave Creek of the same name, for the most part they formed a bilingual band with local groups of the Northern Tonto Apache.

• Wiipukepaya / Wipukepa Band ("People from the foot of the red rock, i.e. the Red Rock Country" or "Oak Creek Canyon people"). Lived in the so-called “Red Rock Country” around Sedona (in Yavapai: Wipuk), planted corn along Oak Creek and in Oak Creek Canyon and collected mesquite in the Middle Verde Valley; were divided into two bilingual Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya-Northern Tonto Apache local groups:
  • Wiipukepaya / Wipukepa local group ("Oak Creek Canyon People") or in Apache: Tsé Hichii Indee ("Horizontal Red Rock People"); Also known as Oak Creek Canyon Band (Yavapai) or Oak Creek Band (Apache) in English
  • Wiipukepaya / Wipukepa local group ("Oak Creek Canyon People") or in Apache: Dasziné Dasdaayé Indee ('Porcupine Sitting Above People'); mostly known in English as the Bald Mountain Band (Apache)

Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya or Southeastern Yavapai, Southern Yavapai (also: Kwevikopaya - "Southern people"). Lived in the Lower Verde River Valley (in Yavapai: Matkʼamvaha) and in the Tonto Basin mostly south of the Mazatzal Mountains including the sacred Four Peaks (in Yavapai: Wi: kchsawa / Wigidjassa / Wikedjasa or Wi: khoba / Wikopa), in the Bradshaw Mountains ( in Yavapai: Wi: kañacha - "rough black mountain range of rocks", formerly: Silver Mountain Range ) as well as south over the Salt River (in Yavapai: Ahaketheela) to the also sacred Superstition Mountains (in Yavapai: Wi: kchsawa / Wigidjisawa, formerly also known as Sierra de la Espuma ), the Dripping Springs Mountains and the southern and western Pinaleño / Pinal Mountains (in Yavapai: Walkame - "Pine Mountains"), often formed with bands of the Southern Tonto Apache and the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache and Arivaipa / Aravaipa Bands of the San Carlos Apache , another tribal group of the Western Apache bilingual local groups, each with a Yavapai -as also an Apache name, and their leaders also bilingual and anyway hl had a Yavapai as well as an Apache name, therefore mostly simply referred to as Tonto Apache .

• Hwaalkamvepaya / Walkamepa Band ("People of the Walkame, i.e. the Pinaleño / Pinal Mountains"). Lived from Phoenix about 100 km east along the southern US Highway 60 to the area around Globe - Miami in the Cobre Valley at the foot of the Pinaleño / Pinal Mountains in the northeast to Superior (Western Apache: Yooʼ Łigai ) in the Tonto National Forest in the southeast , often formed bilingual groups with the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache Band of the San Carlos Apache.
  • Hwaalkamvepaya / Walkamepa Clan or in Apache: T'iisibaan / Tiis Ebah Nnee ('Gray Cottonwoods in the Rocks People') Lived in the eponymous Pinaleño / Pinal Mountains, hence the real “Hwaalkamvepaya / Walkamepa”; in English also known as the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache Band of the San Carlos Apache
  • Ilihasitumapa Clan ('wood-sticking-out-of-middle-of-water people') or in Apache: T'iisibaan / Tiis Ebah Nnee ('Gray Cottonwoods in the Rocks People') also considered the northern Pinaleño / Pinal Mountains as their home; in English also known as the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache Band of the San Carlos Apache
  • another Hwaalkamvepaya / Walkamepa clan (Yavapai name unknown) or in Apache: Dzil Dlaazhe ("Mount Turnbull Apache") Lived in the Santa Teresa Mountains including Mount Turnbull; mostly known in English as the Arivaipa Apache clan of the San Carlos Apache
  • Matkawatapa clan ('red-strata-country people', ie. "People of the Sierra Ancha") or in Apache: Dilzhę́'é / Dil Zhe`é ("people with high, bright voices") Lived in the eponymous Sierra Ancha and According to tradition, they emerged from mixed marriages of the Walkamepa with members of the Dilzhę́'é semi-band from the Sierra Ancha (Western Apache: Dził Nteel - “wide flat, wide mountain”), the most important semi-band of the southern Tonto Apache; also known in English as Dilzhę́'é Semi-Band (Apache)
• Wiikchasapaya / Wikedjasapa Band ("People of the McDowell Mountains (in Yavapai: Wi: kajasa)", the sacred mountains of the Yavapai). Lived along the historic Apache Trail (now part of Arizona State Route 88 ) and along the Salt River from Phoenix (in Yavapai: Wathinka / Wakatehe; Western Apache: Fiinigis) in the west to Miami in the east and northeast to Theodore Roosevelt Lake and Dam and along Tonto Creek including today's Tonto National Monument .
  • Amahiyukpa clan ("people of the wild melon "). Lived in the high mountains along the west bank of the Verde River and in the McDowell Mountains (in Yavapai: Wi: kajasa), about 32 km northeast of Phoenix. Their area bordered in the north on the territory of the Wiikvteepaya / Wikutepa local group of the Mathaupapaya band of the Yavbe '/ Yavapé, north of Lime Creek and directly opposite the Yelyuchopa clan in the Mazatzal Mountains.
  • Atachiopa Clan ('Arrowreed People'). Lived in the high mountains west of the former mining town and now ghost town called Cherry, Yavapai County , in the Agua Fria River Valley between the present-day towns of Dewey-Humboldt and Camp Verde ; 90% of the reservation of today's Yavapai-Apache Nation is located within Camp Verde .
  • Hakayopa Clan ('Cottonwood People') or in Apache: Tsé Nołtłʼizhn ('Rocks in a Line of Greenness People') Claimed the area around the Sunflower Valley community, the Mazatzal Mountains south of the highest peak, Mazatzal Peak (2,409 m) , and to the east in the area around the former Fort Camp Reno in the western Tonto Basin (also called Pleasant Valley ); mostly known in English as the Mazatzal Band (Apache)
  • Hichapulvapa Clan ('bunch-of-wood-sticking-up people', clan name refers to dead wood on a hilltop) or in Apache: Tsé Nołtłʼizhn ('Rocks in a Line of Greenness People') These claimed the Mazatzal Mountains south of the East Verde River and west of North Peak (in Yavapai: Iwilamaya - "bushy rolling hills") to Mazatzal Peak; also mostly known in English as the Mazatzal Band (Apache)

The following clans of the same name (which mostly shared overlapping territories) were represented under the two Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya bands:

• Iiwilkamepa Clan ('grassy-plateau people') Lived in the Superstition Mountains (in Yavapai: Wi: kchsawa or Wigidjisawa) and Pinaleño / Pinal Mountains, Superior is close to their original home.
• Matkawatapa clan ('red-strata-country people', ie. "People of the Sierra Ancha") or in Apache: Dilzhę́'é / Dil Zhe`é ("people with high, bright voices") lived in the Sierra Ancha
• Onalkeopa Clan ('Rocky-Place People') Originally lived in the Mazatzal Mountains between the Hichapulvapa and Yelyuchopa territories , but later moved south to the Walkamepa areas
• Yelyuchopa Clan ('mescal-pit people') lived in the Mazatzal Mountains between the territories of the Hakayopa and Hichapulvapa .

According to the tradition of the Yavapai, there was a fifth group, the Mađqwadabaya / Matakwadapaya ("desert people") who lived with the river Yuma of the Mohave and Quechan and were absorbed into them. Even today some families under the Mohave and Quechan derive their origin from the Matakwadapaya.

history

Relationship to the Apache

Two groups of the Yavapai in central Arizona - the Wi: pukba / Wipukepa ("Northeastern Yavapai") and the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya ("Southeastern Yavapai") - lived in the immediate vicinity of the Tonto Apache and the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache and Arivaipa / Aravaipa Bands of the San Carlos Apache group of the Western Apache , with the Apache bands mostly living east and the Yavapai bands west of the Verde River.

The areas of the Wi: pukba / Wipukepa overlapped in the San Francisco Peaks , along the Upper Verde River , in Oak Creek Canyon and along Fossil Creek with those of the Northern Tonto Apache Bands and were therefore shared by both. Likewise, the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya shared the tribal areas east of the Verde River , along the Fossil Creek, East Verde River , Salt River and in the Superstition Mountains , the Sierra Ancha , the Bradshaw Mountains and Mazatzal Mountains with the southern Tonto Apache Bands and in the Dripping Springs Mountains and the western Pinaleno Mountains with the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache Band and in the Dripping Springs Mountains and in the Santa Teresa Mountains with the Arivaipa / Aravaipa Band.

These Yavapai groups formed mixed Yavapai-Apache bands with the neighboring Tonto and San Carlos Apache and lived in common settlements ( rancherias ) and were difficult to distinguish from outsiders (Spaniards, Mexicans and Americans) because the Wi: pukba / Wipukepa and Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya had taken over other cultural traits of the Apache in addition to the raids and war expeditions (partly matrilocal clans, style of clothing and basket weaving). Most of these mixed bands were also bilingual - and thus spoke both Yavapai and Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati'), but each with a strong audible accent. The mixed Yavapai-Apache bands as well as their chiefs and leaders had both a Yavapai and an Apache name , e.g. B. was a mixed, bilingual band in the Sierra Ancha in Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya as Matkawatapa known and at the Southern Tonto Apache but as Dilzhę'é whose berühmtester leader was among whites mostly under his Apache name as Delshay / Delacha known , however, his Yavapai tribesmen knew him as Wah-poo-eta / Wapotehe .

Since the Tonto Apache, San Carlos Apache and the Wi: pukba / Wipukepa were organized matrilocally and matrilinearly (the man moved to his wife's family, the family derived their descent from the line of the woman), the " mother tongue " decided which tribal affiliation the person had, i.e. whether they considered themselves to be Apache or Yavapai. Due to their kinship and cultural closeness to the Apache, outsiders were often only able to distinguish them from one another on the basis of their language, so these mixed Yavapai-Apache bands were historically simply referred to as Tonto Apache (short: Tonto ); once it was recognized that some of these bands spoke Yavapai rather than Apache, they were simply called Apache Mohave (Apache Mojave) or Yavapai Apache to distinguish them from the real Tonto Apache. In addition, the Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya ("Western Yavapai") as well as the Hualapai (Walapai) and Havasupai were called Yuma-Apache (Apache-Yuma) . Often, historical reports and sources - if Tonto Apache or Tonto are reported there - cannot clearly clarify the tribal affiliation to the Yavapai or Apache.

These mixed Yavapai-Apache bands often allied themselves with other groups of the Western Apache to joint raids or wars against their Indian enemies, especially the Upper Pima , Opata , Tarahumara and Lower Pima as well as against the Spaniards, Mexicans and allied with these later to undertake Americans.

Although the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya and the Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya with the Tonto Apache and the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache and Arivaipa / Aravaipa bands of the San Carlos-Apache were family connected through mixed marriages and formed mixed bilingual Yavapai-Apache bands, they maintained ambivalent relationships to the Cibecue Apache and White Mountain Apache groups of the Western Apache, with whom they neither shared common tribal areas nor married each other (very rare). Just as often as the Yavapai allied themselves with these two Western Apache groups for joint raids or war expeditions, just as often they ambushed them to steal supplies, horses, women and children.

According to tradition, the Yavapai - in particular the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya, Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya and Yavbe '/ Yavapé - used to live in peace and friendship with the Upper Pima and jointly used areas and cultivated fields along the Gila River and Salt River . Then the Apache appeared and attacked the Pima along the Gila River, killing many. However, the Pima mistakenly believed the Apache to be Yavapai, and despite the latter's attempt to clear up the error, both peoples became bitter enemies - and the Yavapai eventually became allies of the Apache.

Relationship to neighboring tribes

From their traditions show that they once shared with now as Northeastern Pai designated Hualapai and Havasupai a people formed, but by internal disputes led to the split. Since that time, the Northeastern Pai have been viewed by all Yavapai as enemies and in particular by the Yavbe '/ Yavapé ("Northwestern Yavapai", "Central Yavapai") and Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya ("Western Yavapai") who live directly to the south and west. bitterly fought. In these fights, which were particularly bitter because of the well-known common origins and language (which was used for insults and insults in combat), there was even sometimes ritual cannibalism (at least on the side of the northeastern Pai).

The various tribes in the southwest were already organized in pre-Hispanic times in various loose defensive and tribal alliances - especially to be able to assert themselves against the river Yuma and Apache , known as fearless warriors ; here in historical times the Quechan (Yuma) Alliance dominated the Colorado River and the Maricopa-Pima Alliance dominated the area of ​​the Gila River and Salt River .

The Maricopa and Akimel O'Odham (Pima) and various O'Odham (Pima Alto) groups formed the so-called Maricopa-Pima Alliance - in order to protect against the warlike attacks of the enemy Quechan (Yuma) alliance of the Quechan , Mohave , and temporarily the Cocopa in the west as well as against the raids and war expeditions of the Western Apache and Chiricahua Apache in the east and north to be able to better defend themselves.

These tribal alliances usually also had influence on or support from neighboring tribes, which were often linguistically, ethnically or culturally close to them - the Maricopa-Pima alliance, which also belonged to the River Yuma in terms of language and culture, and those of the Colorado joined up Halchidhoma , Kavelchadom (Kaveltcadom) , Halyikwamai and Kohuana (Cajuenche) as well as some southern California tribal groups and later also the Cocopa who had fled the Quechan (Yuma) Alliance .

The Quechan (Yuma) Alliance was often supported by the Chemehuevi of the Southern Paiute as well as by the Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya and Yavbe '/ Yavapé , as the Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya partially share their areas along the Colorado River with the Quechan and resident there Mohave shared and often the Chemehuevi hunted in the tribal area of ​​the two Yavapai groups; The alliance also included the Kumeyaay (Tipai-Ipai or Diegueño) , other Californian tribes and the coastal Chumash . This automatically made these Yavapai groups enemies of the Maricopa-Pima Alliance .

Sometimes all the tribes of these alliances undertook military campaigns against a common enemy, but this was intensified in Spanish and later Mexican times.

The war campaigns of the River Yuma of the Quechan (Yuma) Alliance were even sometimes joined by bilingual Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya and Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya as well as the related Tonto Apache and bands of the San Carlos Apache, as they took every opportunity to join tribes of the Rob and make war on the Maricopa-Pima Alliance .

Advance of the Spaniards and Mexicans

It is believed that the first Spanish conquistadors encountered the Yavapai in 1583 . Later other Spaniards followed, in 1604 for example Juan de Oñate . Contact with the Spanish was very sparse, however, and the Yavapai knew how to stay out of the reach of the Church and the Spanish Crown.

When the Spaniards, with their better organization, greater resources and better weapons, offered the Pima Alto (Upper Pima) and Maricopa protection against their enemies, the once regionally limited Maricopa-Pima alliance was integrated into a large Indian-Spanish alliance, which is now the formerly the Pima hostile Opata belonged, and related groups of Pima Bajo (Lower Pima) and Tepehuan well as in the north and east, the Pueblo , which is now the Spanish and Indian settlements against the Apacheria should defend. Later (from 1786) the Ute and their Jicarilla-Apache allies as well as the Navajo (Diné) as well as the particularly warlike and powerful Comanche were convinced, partly by military force, partly by economic pressure (or benefits), to oppose the Apache and theirs To turn allies (to which the Yavapai belonged) and to undertake sometimes joint military operations with the Spaniards against them.

In these constant clashes against the Apache, Yavapai and the Quechan (Yuma) Alliance , the otherwise peaceful Maricopa and Pima proved themselves as tough and persistent warriors and were happy to make themselves available to the Spaniards, Mexicans and later the Americans as scouts and warriors.

Conflicts with Spaniards and Americans

It was not until the middle of the 19th century that the Yavapai, who mostly lived in remote areas, began to feel the increased presence of the advancing Americans and the US Army. In the 1860s, their tribal areas were literally inundated by American gold prospectors and miners. This led to considerable tension between Yavapai and whites, with the Yavapai often falling victim to massacres and retaliatory attacks by the US Army and civil militias - as they were mistakenly confused with the Apache at the time and therefore had to atone for their raids and raids they now also campaigns - which in turn were attributed to the Apache).

The first serious conflicts and fights with US Army units occurred in the so-called Hualapai War or Walapai War (1865-1870), which broke out after the murder of the Hualapai chief Anasa, whereupon the Hualapai (Walapai) messengers to the Havasupai and to their former enemies - the Yavapai-Tonto-Apache bands - to secure their help in the fight against the Americans. In total, there were approximately 250 Hualapai warriors, plus an unknown number of Yavapai and Tonto Apache, who fought hundreds of United States Army troops and militias.

The most important leaders during this time were those of the bilingual Guwevkabaya-Apache bands: Wah-poo-eta (Apache name: Delacha / Delshe , leader of the largest and most bellicose band with approx. 750 members, mostly Guwevkabaya and some of the Mazatzal Band Southern Tonto Apache), Eschetlepan (also Chalipun , Cha-Thle-Pah , leader of approx. 300 mostly Wikedjasapa-Guwevkabaya and some semi-bands of the Southern Tonto Apache), Delshay (Yavapai name: Wah-poo-eta or Wapotehe , Leader of about 200 of the Matkawatapa local group of the Walkamepa-Guwevkabaya and Dilzhę́'é Semi-Band of the Southern Tonto Apache) became after the assassination in 1869 Wah-poo-eta s the most successful and stubborn leader of the allied Yavapai and Tonto Apache), Ashcavotil (Apache name: Escavotil , leader of a Guwevkabaya-Pinaleño Apache band of around 200 warriors, the most bellicose leader in Central Arizona after Wah-poo-eta ), Oshkolte (Apache name: Hascalté or Has-Kay-Ah-Yol -Tel , An Leader of about 70 warriors, 20 women and 20 children, mostly Southern Tonto Apache and some Guwevkabaya, close allies of Ashcavotil and Wah-poo-eta as well as some smaller leaders like Piyahgonte (leader of about 75 Wikedjasapa-Guwevkabaya and Southern Tonto Apache , he was held responsible for most of the raids and devastation in the area around Prescott) and Skiitlanoyah (Yavapai name: Skitlavisyah , leader of about 80 Guwevkabaya-Tonto Apache). Among the Tonto Apache allies, the chiefs Chuntz , Chan-deisi ( called John Daisy by the US Army ) and Cochinay were known and feared.

Many citizens of Tucson were against the establishment of the White Mountain Apache Reservation in 1870 near Fort Apache ( Tłʼog Tłʼog ) and the settlement of around 500 Arivaipa / Aravaipa under Chief Eskiminzin and Pinaleño / Pinal Apache under Chief Capitán Chiquito near the Camp Grant base on Confluence of the San Pedro River and the Aravaipa Creek, approx. 80 km northeast of Tucson. Both of these bands had been among the most active and dangerous Apache war troops in southern Arizona and northern Mexico and were responsible for many successful raids against O'Odham and Maricopa , Americans, Mexicans and operations against Mexican and American army units. They had to renounce the raids and wars and surrender their weapons and were found about 8 km east of Camp Grant in a large settlement along the Arivaipa Creeks at a place that the Apache called Gashdla'á cho o'aa ("Big Sycamore Stands There ”) (Chip Colwell-Chanthaphonh: Western Apache Oral Histories and Traditions of the Camp Grant Massacre ). In order to get enough rations of flour and beef as well as clothing and other necessary items, they were encouraged to plant fields, provide hay for the army horses and barley for the soldiers.

Unscrupulous entrepreneurs - known as the Tucson Ring - saw competition in the successful settlement of the Apache Bands and the fact that they provided for the army and were paid and protected by it in return, as the Tucson Ring usually provided the US Army with food, Provided hay, beef, barley and other things. Therefore they had no interest in a peaceful solution to the conflict between the local Yavapai and Apache bands and the US army; If the bands were to be settled peacefully in reservations for the first time and if they were able to earn a living by farming and raising animals, the high presence of army units would no longer be necessary and their businesses would be threatened.

Since the raids of various Yavapai and Apache around Tucson and in the south of Arizona did not stop after the settlement of the Arivaipa / Aravaipa and Pinaleño / Pinal Apache bands, all raids and conflicts in the region were soon attributed to the peaceful and now unarmed Apache at Camp Grant. At dawn on April 28, 1871 (other sources: April 30, 1871), six Americans and 42 Mexicans attacked Tucson under the leadership of William S. Oury and Jesús Maria Elias, along with 98 Tohono O'Odham warriors of the San Xavier Mission del Bac under the leadership of their old ally, Chief Francisco Galerita, the defenseless and unsuspecting camp of the Apache. Most of the Apache warriors had been hunting in the mountains for a few days and, believing that their families were safe, had left the camp with almost no warriors. In the so-called Camp Grant Massacre that followed, 144 Apache were mostly killed or mutilated and scalped by Tohono O'Odham ( except for eight they were all women and children ), the Mexicans and Americans mostly did not participate directly in the killing, but they did kill Apache trying to escape. 29 Apache children were sold to Mexico as slaves by the Tohono O'Odham and Mexicans. After the massacre, the surviving Arivaipa / Aravaipa and Pinaleño / Pinal Apache bands fled northwards into the Tonto Basin to their related and allied Tonto Apache and Yavapai.

The so-called Yavapai War or Tonto War ( 1871 to 1875 ) that broke out was embittered against the US Army by the allies Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya , Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya , Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache as well as parts of the Yavbe '/ Yavapé , Citizen militias, their Indian allies as well as prospectors, miners and settlers. During the campaigns of the US Army against the allied tribes, which often lasted several months, there were bloody battles lasting several hours (sometimes several days), ambushes and gruesome massacres.

The Indian fighters used the so-called "hit-and-run" tactics of guerrilla warfare , ie raids, ambushes and attacks on the supply lines of the US army as well as targeted, "pinprick-like" military actions that were intended to wear down the Americans. Here they benefited from their traditional organization in independent local groups and gangs, as these formed small, independently operating combat units, which were characterized by high mobility and flexibility. In addition, they knew every hiding place and water hole or a possible place for an ambush in their country and mostly operated from the mountains, where they immediately retreated after attacks. This enabled the warriors to evade the militarily superior enemy. Their success depended on whether they managed to keep the decision about where, at what time and under what conditions the military confrontation with the US Army took place, and this from their residential area and the settlements with their wives and Keep away from children.

The fighting peaked during George Crook 's Tonto Basin Campaign (1872–1873); With the help of local Hualapai and in particular Apache scouts, the US Army moved deeper and deeper into the hiding places of the bands, so that they had to flee from advancing army units or the scouts together with women and children - the abandoned settlements were ordered Fields and abandoned supplies were burned and destroyed by the US Army to starve the Indians. In this campaign, the tribes suffered several decisive defeats: on December 28, 1872, during the Battle of Salt River Canyon (better known as the Skeleton Cave Massacre ), a Tonto-Apache-Guwevkabaya band under Chief Nanni-Chaddi with about 110 warriors out of 130 Soldiers of the 5th Cavalry Regiment under Captain William H. Brown and 30 Apache scouts tracked down and in the ensuing battle 75 warriors, women and children (including Nanni-Chaddis) were killed, 15 more Tonto-Apache-Guwevkabaya were dying, only 18 women and 6 children survived and were taken to Camp Verde. Only a few weeks later, on March 27, 1873, another setback occurred with the Battle of Turret Peak , when a US unit and Apache scouts under the command of Captain George M. Randall established a Guwevkabaya-Tonto-Apache settlement under Chief Delshay / Wapotehe on Turret Peak (near today's Cordes Junction), a Yavapai stronghold, surprised; they were so surprised that many fell from the mountain to their death, some fought shortly before they were killed or surrendered. A total of 57 Indians were killed and several seriously wounded; This attack was demoralizing for the allied bands, so that two weeks later, on April 6, 1873, many of the hostile Yavapai and Tonto Apache - among them also the important chief Eschetlepan / Chalipun with 300 of his Guwevkabaya-Southern-Tonto-Apache band - as well San Carlos Apache surrendered to Crook at Camp Verde.

In the spring of 1873, most of the Yavapai and Apache allies had given up their resistance and settled in the reservations; Although most of the bands were now peaceful, tensions and tumults arose again and again within and around the reservations, which had various causes: poor or insufficient rations (and therefore widespread hunger), disagreements between the military and the civil administration over the administration of reservations, etc. a. In the winter of 1873/1874 a serious crisis developed, which again led to outbreaks of violence and culminated in the murder of Lieutenant Jacob Almy on May 27, 1873. During these battles, the Guwevkabaya-Apache bands of the chiefs Ashcavotil, Oshkolte / Has-Kay-Ah-Yol-Tel, Natatotel / Natokel and the Tonto Apache Naqui-Naquis were tracked down and either captured or killed - all of the named chiefs were until June Killed in 1873.

The leaders, who were always dissatisfied and who always caused unrest on the reservation, fled to the mountains after Ally's murder; Delshay, Chuntz, Cochinay and Chan-deisi successfully fought from their bases again against the US army under Crook, who put a bounty on the chiefs. In the spring the campaign against these last resisting Yavapai and Tonto Apache began, but the enemy bands could only be successfully tracked down and wiped out with the help of Yavapai, Apache and Hualapai scouts - by July 1874 either all had surrendered or were killed. The severed heads of seven chiefs - including von Delshay / Wapotehe, Chuntz, Chan-deisi and Cochinay - were displayed as a trophy and as evidence of their death for several days on the parade grounds of the reservations and army posts (thus the civilized Americans behaved no better than the wild, uncivilized Indians and indigenous people who often hunted the head ).

Settlement on reservations

Since the allied bands of the Yavapai and Apache (you have to keep in mind that the fighting Yavapai and Apache were not professional soldiers or scouts who knew their families were safe and had a regular supply of troops) continuously during the so-called Hualapai and Yavapai Wars Attacks on their war troops and their settlements (with their women, children and old people hidden there) by the US Army and their allied Indian scouts (mostly Northeast Pai and Western Apache, as well as Maricopa, Upper Pima and Navajo) were found the bands are always on the run. For the fleeing bands it became more and more difficult to organize enough food and clothing for the harsh winter due to the soldiers, settlers, militias and scouts advancing further and further into their settlement area and their last bastions - fields could not be tilled or harvested, collecting and Hunting was also only possible with an increased risk and there was simply no time to make the necessary clothing and to set up food depots for the winter. In addition, the US Army systematically destroyed all settlements, fields and food depots, kidnapped the families hiding there and sometimes shot the warriors' few horses. Already weakened by the ongoing fighting and flight as well as the outbreak of hunger in winter, about a third of the allied Yavapai-Apache bands died as a result of the diseases that now appeared.

Yavapai-Apache-Exodus Day

Due to the concentration policy of the US Army in 1871 the Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya of the Yavapai and Tonto Apache (Dilzhe'e Apache) were forcibly transferred to the 900 km² Camp Verde reservation along the Verde River near the Camp Verde Army Post (in the Imprisoned near the present-day town of Cottonwood , Arizona), during the first three years (1871–1873) many children and old people died of poor water and insufficient supply of healthy and adequate food; however, when the bands successfully set up irrigation systems (including a five-mile-long trench), it worked so well that it was now possible to get enough harvest to be relatively self-sufficient. Businessmen who worked with the government to secure supplies to the reservations saw their very existence threatened and demanded that the reservation be closed. Therefore, and in order to break the last spirit of resistance of the tribes, about 1,476 Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya and Tonto Apache (Dilzhe'e Apache) together with Yavbe '/ Yavapé from were found on February 27, 1875 under the command of the arrogant Commissioner Levi Edwin Dudley Prescott and Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya from the Fort McDowell Reservation and Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya , including children, the elderly and the sick, forced to move on foot to the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation about 300 km south-east ; Instead of taking the longer and safer baggage car road, in order to save time, they had to take the shorter route in extremely bad weather, but with flooding rivers, mountain passes, partly snow-covered mountains and through narrow canyons, particularly difficult routes. During the march, due to the hardships, hunger and pre-existing hostilities, violent and sometimes fatal tensions arose between Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya , Yavbe '/ Yavapé and Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya on the one hand and Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya , Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya and their Tonto Apache (Dilzhe'e Apache) relatives on the other hand. After two weeks, 1,361 Yavapai and Tonto Apache arrived in San Carlos, as 25 babies were born on the way, around 140 Indians - mostly elderly, women and children - perished in the snow and cold (other sources name around 65 Indians). Even today this event is commemorated every year with the Yavapai-Apache Exodus Day . The various Yavapai bands and Tonto Apache were not only interned on the San Carlos Indian Reservation for the first time with other partially hostile Yavapai, but also with unrelated and also mostly hostile groups of the Western Apache and Chiricahua Apache; In addition, scouts from the Western Apache, the Northeastern Pai (Hualapai and Havasupai) and (to a lesser extent) the Maricopa-Pima Alliance had made a decisive contribution to tracking down the enemy bands and thus to the victory of the US Army.

San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation

During their internment in San Carlos, the Yavapai offered themselves often as scouts for the US Army against enemy Chiricahua Apache and Western Apache in the 1880s; they also took part in the 1886 campaign against Geronimo and the last free Chiricahua Apache.

In San Carlos the Yavapais and Tonto Apache began again to plant fields and bought cattle; However, floods destroyed their dams and neighboring ranchers, farmers and miners occupied the land assigned to them - they did not get any other land from the Western Apache who had already settled here, as they had to struggle for survival even with the poor soil of the San Carlos Reservation. The Yavapai repeatedly asked official bodies to be allowed to return to their homeland and to settle there on reservations.

The first to leave San Carlos were the Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya , who hired themselves as day laborers or wage workers in the area around La Paz and Wickenburg or on the Colorado River Indian Reservation, which is mostly inhabited by Mohave (Mohaje), and that of Quechan ( Yuma) inhabited Fort Yuma Indian Reservation - to this day they have no reservation of their own and are not officially recognized as a tribe by the US federal government (so-called federally recognized tribe).

Establishing your own reservations

The Yavapai and Tonto Apache were forcibly interned in San Carlos for a total of 25 years, but by 1900 most of them had already left the unloved reservation to return to their old homeland. Some returned to the Verde River Valley, some to Fort McDowell and Fort Whipple (near Prescott).

In 1890 the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya, which numbered only around 200, and some southern Tonto Apache were officially allowed to settle at Fort McDowell, and in 1903 the approximately 100 km² Fort McDowell Indian Reservation was established. Since the Verde River flows through the reservation, the Yavapai tried again to farm, but they had to fight for their water rights - instead of providing funds to improve the irrigation dams and flood protection measures, the US government wanted to relocate the Yavapai again - this time to their traditional enemies of the Maricopa-Pima Alliance on the Salt River Pima Reservation . Thanks to the efforts of Carlos Montezuma , they were allowed to stay, but they could only secure little money and water rights. Later cattle husbandry and wage labor both on and outside the reservation became important; in the 1950s and 1960s they successfully thwarted the Orme Dam, which would have flooded most of the reservation - and waived $ 33 million in compensation.

The Northern Tonto Apache as well as the Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya and a few Yavbe '/ Yavapé settled near Camp Verde in the Camp Verde Reservation established in 1910, which originally became a 40 acres (approx. 0.16 km²) reservation in the following decade merged with the approx. 248 acres (approx. 1.00 km²) Middle Verde Indian Reservation in 1937 to form the current, approx. 665 acres (approx. 2.70 km²) Yavapai-Apache Nation Indian Reservation , and consists of four non-contiguous settlements in the Verde Valley in eastern Yavapai County - Clarkdale, Middle Verde, Rimrock and the administrative center and main town of Camp Verde, which covers almost 90% of the reserve with 576 acres (approximately 2.33 km²). Due to the poor soil and the small size of the reserve, most of the tribe members had to work in the nearby copper mines until tourism was established. Today the reservation is mostly shaped by the language and culture of the Tonto Apache as the Yavapai.

The Yavbe '/ Yavapé and some Northern Tonto Apache had settled near Fort Whipple north of Prescott . In 1935, today's Yavapai-Prescott Indian Reservation was established on the site of the former Fort Whipple Military Reserve. It originally comprised only 75 acres (approx. 0.3 km²), to which in 1956 a further 1,320 acres (approx. 5.3 km²) were added. The Yavapai now operate two casinos, Bucky's Casino and Yavapai Casino.

Way of life and culture

Unlike their Yuma-speaking relatives on the Colorado River, most of the Yavapai led a semi-nomadic existence and lived from hunting, collecting edible wild plants and supplementing with small arable crops ( pumpkins , watermelons , corn, etc.). These barren arable land were not looked after and cherished, but were left to their own devices and only returned at harvest time. Most agriculture was practiced in the western area of ​​the Yavapai, the territory of various small Tolkepaya groups, with the poorest soils, the highest temperatures, little rain and rivers (Bill Williams, Hassayampa), which in some cases completely dried up in the desert soil. And this, although for agriculture, which was dependent on annual floods, the rivers overflowed extremely unreliably or carried water at all. In contrast to Yavapé, Wipukepa and Kwevkepaya, which inhabited mountain ranges richer in game, richer in flora and with more springs and rivers, the Tolkepaya were dependent on the extremely unsafe and hard-labor agriculture for survival. In some years, when the floods and inundations did not occur, the Tolkepaya migrated to the lowlands at the confluence of the Colorado with the Gila River, areas controlled by the Yuma, and practiced agriculture there. The Yuma allowed the Tolkepaya to plant plantations in their area and in return they hunted game in the mountain ranges of the Tolkepaya and collected wild plants and whetstones.

If the hunt, the gathering and the harvest were not enough to survive, the Yavapai traded with the Hopi , Diné as well as the Mohave and Quechan to get corn, beans, melons and other surplus food. The Yavapai offered baskets, agave and various animal skins in exchange. Navajo and Hopi blankets were particularly popular. In contrast to Tolkepaya and Yavapé, the Kwevkepaya, Wipukepa and their Apache allies supplemented their emergency supplies not only with trade, but also with raids against Pima, Tohono O'Odham and Opata and later Spaniards and Mexicans.

Therefore, the Yavapai lived mostly in caves, deep in the mountains and on the mountain tops, in huts made of branches that resembled the Wickiups of the Apaches. These rancherias were well hidden from any enemies and could also be defended well.

Todays situation

Today there are three federally recognized Yavapai tribes , each with their own reservations, and other Yavapai groups also live in several other reservations in Arizona. With the exception of the Fort McDowell Reservation, which has irrigated farmland, resources are extremely limited. Today many live from farm work, animal husbandry and wage labor. Very beautiful baskets woven using the bead technique, which are identical in material, pattern, shape and technique to those of the Western Apaches , are still occasionally made.

Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe

The Yavapai-Prescott flag

The Yavapai-Prescott Indian Reservation near Prescott was built in 1935 on the site of the former Fort Whipple Military Reserve, originally comprised only 75 acres (approx. 0.3 km²), to which in 1956 a further 1,320 acres (approx. 5.3 km²) were added were. Her husband, Sam Jimulla, the first chief of the Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe, following, Viola Jimulla became the first female chief of a North American tribe (1940-1966). The Yavapai now operate two casinos , Bucky's Casino and Yavapai Casino. The 2000 census found a reservation population of 182 people, 117 of whom were entirely Native American. Today there are 159 tribal members.

Yavapai-Apache Nation

After the Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache (Tonto Apache) were forced to move into the approximately 900 km² Camp Verde reservation along the Verde River near Camp Verde in 1871, many children and died during the first three years (1871–1873) Old people due to poor water and insufficient supply of healthy and sufficient food. When the Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache set up irrigation systems (including an approximately 8 km long trench), it worked so well that it was now possible to bring in sufficient harvests to be relatively self-sufficient. But contracted entrepreneurs who worked with the government to ensure the supply of the reservations, saw their existence threatened by this and demanded that the reservation be canceled. Thereupon, on February 27, 1875, 1,476 Indians were forced to move over snow-capped mountains and frozen rivers approx. 290 km south to the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, with many elderly, women and children perishing in the snow and cold. During the march, due to hunger and hardship, violent tensions arose between Tolkepaya, Yavapé and Wipukepa on the one hand and the Dilzhe'e Apache and their Kwevkepaya and Wipukepa allies on the other. After two weeks, 1,361 Yavapai tonto arrived in San Carlos, as 25 babies were born on the way, around 140 had died.

In the early 1900s, the Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache returned to their old homeland, and in 1910 the 40 acres (0.16 km²) Camp Verde Indian Reservation was opened, as well as the separate 248 in the following decade acres (approx. 1.00 km²) Middle Verde Indian Reservation. These two were merged in 1937 to form today's, approximately 665 acres (approximately 2.70 km²), Yavapai-Apache Nation Indian Reservation, and consists of four disconnected settlements in the Verde Valley in eastern Yavapai County - Clarkdale , Middle Verde , Rimrock as well as Camp Verde , the administrative center and main town, which with 576 acres (approx. 2.33 km²) covers almost 90% of the reserve. The 2000 census found a reservation population of 743 people, of whom 512 lived in Camp Verde, 218 in Clarkdale, and only 13 in the unincorporated settlement of Lake Montezuma .

The base of the Yavapai-Apache Nation's income is the Cliff Castle Casino and tourism, thanks to many preserved historical sites, such as Slide Rock State Park , Sedona Red Rock Country , Tuzigoot National Monument and Montezuma Castle National Monument . The Yavapai-Apache Nation is an amalgamation of two historically different tribes, both of which lived on the Upper Verde River. The Dilzhe'e Apache used the land in the northeast, east and south, while the Wipukepa, or Northeastern Yavapai and Yavapé ' or Northwestern Yavapai, lived in the northwest, west and south. Their territories overlapped along the Upper Verde River, where they often lived together in bilingual groups. The Yavapai-Apache Nation also forms one of the five Apache tribes of Arizona. Today the Apache culture prevails.

Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation

The reservation of the Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation, about 35 miles northeast of Phoenix in Maricopa County , was established by Theodore Roosevelt in 1903 and originally comprised 40 sqm (about 103 km²), but in 1910 the Office of Indian Affairs tried to relocate the residents to open the area and water rights to outsiders - but in vain. The reservation currently covers 24,680 acres (approx. 100 km²) and is inhabited by approx. 600 of the 950 tribe members.

The Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation has several tourism businesses, including Fort McDowell Casino, Fort McDowell Adventures (a Western-themed outdoor venue), Eagle's Nest RV Park, WeKoPa Golf Club, Fort McDowell Farms, Yavapai Materials, Radisson Poco Diablo Resort in Sedona and the Radisson Fort McDowell Resort and Conference Center.

Fort McDowell is also the birthplace of one of the first advocates for indigenous human rights, Dr. Carlos Montezuma (Wassaja) (1866-1923). As a child, Wassaja was kidnapped by Akimel O'Odham and sold to an Italian photographer who taught him medicine in Chicago, and eventually graduated with a doctorate in medicine. Later on, Wassaja, better known as Dr. Carlos Montezuma, for the rights of Native Americans, for the right to become citizens of the United States. He also became one of the leading figures in helping the Yavapai regain their tribal lands and died of tuberculosis on the reservation .

The Kwevikopaya (also Kwevkepaya ) or Southeastern Yavapai of the Fort McDowell Reservation call themselves Abaja - 'The People', therefore some anthropologists and linguists suspect that the name Apache for the various Athapaskan-speaking Apaches is derived from the self-name of the Kwevkepaya . The Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation consists of two different tribes, the Kwevikopaya Yavapai and the Dilzhe'e Apache or Tonto Apache , who often married each other, formed bilingual groups and were allies against hostile tribes and settlers. The Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation, like the Yavapai-Apache Nation, is one of the five Apache tribes in Arizona.

Demographics

The Yavapai never numbered over 2,500 members before they were subjugated by the Americans and before they were decimated by disease. James Mooney estimated the Yavapai to have 600 members in 1680. For the year 1873, about 1,000 tribal members are given, while in 1903 from about 500 to 600, in 1906 from 520 Yavapai. According to the Indian Office, there were 549 members in 1910 and 708 in 1923. The US census of 2000 counted 879 Yavapai. In 1990, 163 still spoke their traditional tribal language.

Chiefs (leaders) of the Yavapai

Tonto leaders or leaders of mixed Yavapai-Apache bands (these were either bilingual Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya-Northern Tonto Apache or Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya-Southern Tonto Apache or Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya-San Carlos Apache )

• Delshay ( Delshe , Delchea , Delacha - 'Big Rump' - 'Big Buttock', 'Großer Allerwertester', in Yavapai called Wah-poo-eta or Wapotehe , approx. * 1835; Kwevkepaya-Tonto-Apache leader, his mixed and A bilingual gang of around 200 members, consisting of the Matkawatapa local group of the Walkamepa-Kwevkepaya and the Southern Tonto-Apache, lived in the Sierra Ancha west to Tonto Creek and east to Cherry Creek, but were also often in the Mazatzal Mountains to the west to find their tribal area, was involved in the murder of Lieutenant Jacob Almy in San Carlos in 1873 and then fled to the mountains together with the chiefs Chuntz, Cochinay and Chan-deisi, became the most successful and stubborn leader of the allies Yavapai and Tonto-Apache, on July 29, 1874 his group of Apache scouts was placed under Tonto Apache (or White Mountain Apache?) - Chief Desalin and Delshay was killed, his severed head was taken as a trophy along with 76 captured Kwevkepaya-Tonto brought to Camp McDowell, not to be confused with Wah-poo-eta )
• Wah-poo-eta ( Wapotehe , Wapooita - 'Big Rump' - 'Big rump', 'Big butt-tester ', called Delacha or Delshe in Apache , * ?; Kwevkepaya-Tonto-Apache guide, its approximately 750 members are bilingual Gang, mostly Kwevkepaya and the Mazatzal group of the Southern Tonto Apache, were known as the largest and most bellicose group and lived mostly in the southern Mazatzal Mountains, but little is known about Wah-poo-eta as he refused to admit to the Americans negotiate, after several successful raids and war expeditions he was killed on August 15, 1869 by 44 enemy Maricopa and Akimel O'Odham under the Maricopa war chief Juan Chivaria in Castle Creek Canyon, not to be confused with Delshay )
• Eschetlepan ( Chalipun , Cha-Thle-Pah , Choltepun , called Charlie Pan by the US Army , Kwevkepaya-Tonto-Apache leader, himself belonged to the Mazatzal group of the Southern Tonto Apache, his Apache followers belonged to this and four of the six small groups of the Southern Tonto Apache, his gang of about 100 members consisted mostly of Wikedjasapa-Kwevkepaya and lived southwest of Green Valley and south of the East Verde River, about 17 km east of the Verde River to the northern foothills the Mazatzal Mountains, so they could easily raid the areas around Prescott and Wickenburg)
• Ashcavotil ( Ascavotil , in Apache Escavotil , Kwevkepaya-Pinaleño-Apache-Führer, his bilingual group of about 200 warriors lived east of Cherry Creek south along both sides of the Salt River and in the Pinaleno Mountains, according to Wah-poo-eta he was the most belligerent leaders in central Arizona, heavily armed and well supplied with ammunition from Apache of the Fort Goodwin reservation, ambushed and fought his warriors far south Indian and white settlements as far as Tucson, Sacaton and Camp Grant)
• Oshkolte ( Hascalté , Has-Kay-Ah-Yol-Tel , Tonto Apache-Kwevkepaya-Führer, his bilingual gang consisted of about 70 warriors, 20 women and 20 children, mostly southern Tonto Apache and some Kwevkepaya, lived on both sides of the Tonto Creek north to the East Verde River and south to the Salt River and east of the Four Peaks in the Mazatzal Mountains, his warriors were well armed, close allies of Ashcavotil and Wah-poo-eta , on whom he depended for ammunition; † killed March 1873)
• Nanni-Chaddi (Tonto Apache-Kwevkepaya-Führer, * ?; undertook many raids against settlements of Akimel O'Odham and the Whites along the Salt and Gila Rivers, was killed on December 28, 1872 in the Skeleton Cave Massacre (also Battle of Salt River Canyon ) together with 75 men, women and children of 130 soldiers of the 5th Cavalry Regiment under Captain William H. Brown and 30 Indian scouts killed, 15 other Tonto were dying, only 18 women and 6 children survived as prisoners)
• Skiitlanoyah (also Skitianoyah , in Yavapai Skitlavisyah, Kwevkepaya-Tonto-Apache-Führer, his bilingual gang of approx. 80 members lived north of Delshay's gang, between the Middle East Verde River and the Upper Tonto Creek northwards to the Mogollon Rim)
• Piyahgonte ( Pi-yah-gon-te , Yavapai-Tonto-Apache leader of the 1860s and 1870s, his bilingual gang of about 75 members lived on both sides of the Upper East Verde River north to the Mogollon Rim, made for most Raids and devastation in the Prescott area)
• Natatotel ( Natokel or Notokel , Kwevkepaya-Tonto-Apache leader; † killed June 1873)
• Motha (“Fog: Mist”, leader of the Wiipukepaya / Wipukepa (“People from the foot of the red rock, i.e. the Red Rock Country”) or the Oak Creek Band (in Apache: Tsé Hichii Indee - 'Horizontal Red Rock People') a mixed Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya-Northern Tonto Apache Band in Oak Creek Canyon, later named “Head Chief” of the so-called Verde Indians - Tolkepaya, Yavapé, Wipukepa, Kwevkepaya and Tonto Apache - on the Rio Verde Reservation )

Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya guide

• Pawchine
• Sygollah ( Saygully , together with Eskiminzin , the chief of the Arivaipa Apache - a native Pinaleño Apache, who had close family contacts to the Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya - he accompanied John Clum to Washington)
• Sekwalakawala

Wi: pukba / Wipukepaya guide

• Paquala ("Tall Man")
• Tecoomthaya (led his approximately 200 gang members in the summer of 1872 to the far north of the Wipukepa Territory to escape the US Army and hid in the Bill Williams Mountains, here they hoped for ammunition and rifles from the neighboring Havasupai and Southern Paiute in exchange against suede. With the help of Pai Scouts, they were tracked down by the US Army and attacked without warning or the opportunity to surrender. Although most of the Wipukepa escaped, the soldiers burned all their food, supplies, huts and clothes, so that the Wipukepa spent the coming winter starving, freezing and fleeing and finally gave up only in rags and almost starved)
• Wehabesuwa (leader of a group in the Bloody Basin)

Yavbe '/ Yavapé guide

• Hoseckrua (killed † January 1864 when soldiers from Fort Whipple attacked his settlement and killed 28 Yavapé, including Hoseckrua)
• Coquannathacka ("Grean Leaf" - 'Green Leaf'), leader of the Hwaalkyanyanyepaya / Walkeyanyanyepa ("People of Mingus Mountain (in Yavapai: Hwa: lkyañaña)", a group of the Yavapé local group in the Bradshaw Mountains and Mingus Mountain )
• Makwa (“Quail's Topknot”), leader of the Wiikvteepaya / Wikutepa (“People of the Granite Mountain (in Yavapai: ʼWi: kvte: wa)”, a group of the Mathaupapaya local group in the Bradshaw Mountains and Granite Mountains )

Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya guide

• Quashackama (also Quacanthewya )
• Ohatchecama (also Ochecama , Ochicama , Ahoochy Kahmah , A-wha-che-ka-ma - "Striking the Enemy with the Fist" or simply "Striking Enemy", leader in the first Skull Valley Massacre)
• Chawmasecha ("Looking Over" - 'He who keeps track')
• Chemewalasela
• Pakota ( Pocati - 'Great, Eminent Man', called José Coffe by the Whites , traveled to Washington, DC, with Chief Takodawa as leader of the Tolkepaya in 1872 to meet President Ulysses S. Grant)
• Takodawa (later called Washington Charley , accompanied Chief Pakota to Washington in 1872)

See also

• List of North American Indian tribes

literature

• Donald E. Worcester: The Apaches - 'Eagles of the Southwest', Econ Verlag 1982, ISBN 3-430-19854-2
• Donald E. Worcester: The Apaches - 'Eagles of the Southwest', University of Oklahoma Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8061-1495-9 (English)
• William C. Sturtevant (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians , Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC

Alfonso Ortiz (Ed.): Southwest Vol. 9, 1979, ISBN 0-16-004577-0

Alfonso Ortiz (Ed.): Southwest Vol. 10, 1983, ISBN 0-16-004579-7

• Tom Bathi: Southwestern Indian Tribes , KC Publications, Las Vegas 1997, ISBN 0-88714-097-1
• Timothy Braatz: Surviving Conquest: A History of the Yavapai Peoples , University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, ISBN 978-0-8032-2242-7

Web links

Commons : Yavapai  - collection of images, videos and audio files

• Yavapai-Apache Nation website
• Site of the Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe
• Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Jeffrey P. Shepherd, We Are an Indian Nation: A History of the Hualapai People, University of Arizona Press (April 2010), 229, ISBN 978-0816529049
2. ^ Ethnologue - Languages ​​of the World - Havasupai-Walapai-Yavapai
3. ^ Tonto Apache and its position within Apachean
4. ↑ Yavapai ( Memento from December 19, 2015 in the Internet Archive )
5. ^ Access Genealogy - Walapai Indians
6. ↑ THE SKELETON CAVE MASSACRE - THE APACHES AND YAVAPAI, CRUCIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEN THEM ( Memento from November 15, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
7. ↑ Etymology - Also, What About 'Tonto'?
8. ↑ the engl. Names for the two mountain ranges are derived from a river Yuma language, the Mohave (Mohaje) or Hamakhav of the Mohave (Aha Makhav or Pipa Aha Makav) : Harquahala - "flowing water or always water" and Harcuvar - "Cottonwood- Water"
9. ^ Brian McGinty: The Oatman Massacre: A Tale of Desert Captivity and Survival, ISBN 978-0806137704 , University of Oklahoma Press, 2006, p. 215
10. ^ Yarnell And Peeples Valley Chamber Of Commerce
11. ^ Southwestern Peoples Notes
12. ↑ People of the Desert, Canyons and Pines ( Memento from September 27, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 10.6 MB)
13. ^ Photo Gallery - Oral History of the Yavapai
14. ↑ the Yavapai believe in spiritual beings or spirits in human form called akaka (Yavapé-Wipukepaya-Kwevkepaya) or kakaka which, according to their tradition in the caves or Cliff Dwellings of (Tolkepaya) : Hakataya (Pataya, too) and Sinagua cultures in live in the mountains and protect people, these beings have great similarities with the better-known mountain spirits (in Apache: Ga'an) of the Apache; both the Yavapai and the Apache are therefore also known for their Crown Dances and Mountain Spirit Dances.
15. ^ The Greater Bend of the Gila River, Contemporary Native American Connections to an Ancestral Landscape, 126
16. ↑ the two former gold rush towns Globe (Western Apache: Bésh Baa Gowąh - "place of gold metal") and Miami (Western Apache: Goshtłʼish Tú ) are located near today's San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation
17. ↑ the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya were the only Yavapai to adopt the matrilocal and matrilineal clan system of the Western Apache
18. ^ EW Gifford: The Southeastern Yavapai; Band and Clans pages 189-191
19. ^ Indian Country - Exodus Day Commemorates Removal, Restoration of Two People
20. ↑ Worcester: The Apaches, Eagles of the Southwest, pp. 177 ff.
21. ^ Yavapai-Apache Exodus Day ' ( Memento from January 7, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
22. ↑ Yavapai ( Memento from July 14, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
23. ^ The Yavapai - Fierce Warriors of the Colorado River
24. ↑ Bucky's and Yavapai Casinos ( Memento from August 29, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
25. ↑ United States Census Bureau - Yavapai-Prescott Reservation ( Memento of June 8, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
26. ↑ Yavapai Prescott Indian Tribe (YPIT)
27. ↑ Timothy Braatz: Surviving Conquest: A History of the Yavapai Peoples, University of Nebraska Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8032-2242-7 , pp. 175-176
28. ↑ United States Census Bureau - Yavapai-Apache Nation ( Memento of June 8, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
29. ↑ Cliff Castle Casino
30. ↑ ITCA - Yavapai-Apache Nation ( Memento of 19 August 2003 at the Internet Archive )
31. ↑ Yavapai-Apache Nation - Yavapai & Apache Culture ( Memento from January 31, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
32. ↑ Fort McDowell Resort Destination
33. ↑ ITCA Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation ( Memento of 19 August 2003 at the Internet Archive )
34. ↑ Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation - About Us ( Memento of May 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
35. ^ Yavapai - The Chameleon People