Athapaskan languages

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Athabaskan or Athabascan languages  usually - Athabaskan or Athabaskisch called - are the geographically most widespread indigenous language family of North America, whose more than 40 individual languages and dialects across several North American Cultures areas extend: the subarctic in north-western Canada and south of Alaska , the Pacific Northwest Coast of the west coast of Alaska and California, California, and the southwestern United States and northern Mexico . Today these languages ​​are still spoken by a total of around 200,000 people; the best-known and most important Athabaskan language is therefore the southern Athabasque language (Apache language) called Navajo (Diné bizaad) of Navajo (Diné) , which is also the largest indigenous language in the United States and Canada with 170,000 speakers. Geographically, however, the most widespread among all North American indigenous languages ​​is Chipewyan (ᑌᓀᓱᒼᕄᓀ Dënesųłiné), the language of the Chipewyan (Denesuline) belonging to the Northern Athabascans (Dene ) .

Dissemination of the Na Dené languages

Naming

The name Athapaskaw comes from the neighboring hostile Woodland Cree to the south and means "everywhere is grass or cane"; with this name they referred to the region in the west of Lake Athabasca as well as the lake itself in northern Alberta . This name was introduced by Albert Gallatin in 1836 (written in 1826) in his Classification of the languages ​​of North America ; he admitted that it was his choice to use this term for the language family and the ethnic groups associated with it.

The four spellings in English Athapaskan, Athapascan, Athabaskan and Athabascan as well as the two in German as Athapaskisch and Athabaskisch are each about the same in use. Some communities and tribes prefer one variation over the other (Krauss 1987); z. B. the Tanana Chiefs Conference and the Alaska Native Language Center use the spelling Athabascan , while Ethnologue Athapaskan as a name for the language family as well as for the individual languages.

Although the term athapaskan (and other spellings) for the language and athapasques (and other spellings) for the associated ethnic groups has so far been common in linguistics , anthropology and ethnology , there is a growing trend among scholars and experts to use the term Dene ( Volk ) for the Athapaskan-speaking groups and Dene languages (in English: Dene language ) for the whole family of languages ​​as well as the individual languages. In 2012 the annual Athabaskan Languages ​​Conference changed its name to Dene Languages ​​Conference . Like many indigenous peoples , the Northern Athabasques in northwest Canada simply referred to themselves as Dene , Dené or Tiné , the Alaska Dene ( athabasques in Alaska) as Dinaa or Dena and the Navajo, who belong to the Southern Athabasques, as Diné and Apache as Indee, Ndé or T Inde , which literally simply means people .

Na Dené languages ​​(Athapaskan Eyak Tlingit)

Athapaskan (Athabaskan) together with the extinct Eyak form the secured genetic unit Athapaskan-Eyak (AE) . Often this is expanded to include the distantly related Tlingit , so that these languages ​​are known as Athapaskan-Eyak-Tlingit (AET) , Tlina-Dene , but mostly as Na-Dené languages ; the latter two designations are again indications of the size of the language area and the ethnic groups that include them (Tlina-Dene: Tli ngit- na vajo- Dene or Na-Dené: Na vajo- Dené ). However, the genetic relationship of Tlingit has not been conclusively clarified. The Haida was formerly assigned to the Na-Dene languages, but today as a language isolate as the Tsimshian seen. According to the researchers, the similarities are based more on areal language contacts (Tlingit is spoken directly north of Haida) and on incorrect language analyzes from early comparative research (Levine 1979, Leer 1990, 1991, Campbell 1997, Mithun 1999).

Classification of Athapaskan (Athabaskan)

Regional language groups

Athapaskan (Athabaskan) is mostly divided by linguists into three large regional language groups:

  1. Northern Athapaskan (Athabaskan) / Northern Athapaskan (Athabaskan) languages ​​(Interior Alaska and Northwest Canada)
  2. Pacific Coast Athapaskan (Athabaskan) / Athapaskan (Athabaskan) languages ​​of the Pacific coast (Pacific west coast and in the Pacific Northwest of the USA)
  3. Southern Athapaskan (Athabaskan) / Southern Athapaskan (Athabaskan) languages ​​or Apache languages (southwest of the USA and northern Mexico)

The conventional tripartite division or classification into regional language groups (North, Pacific Coasts and Southern Athapaskan) is essentially based on the geography and physical distribution of the Athapaskan peoples and the resulting (mostly) cultural similarities as well as on well-founded linguistic comparisons or linguistic similarities; only southern Athapaskan (Athabaskan) or the Apache languages ​​form a linguistic genetic unit . (The speakers of genetically related languages ​​need not also be ethnologically (biologically-genetically) related.) The following classification is based on Campbell 1997, Mithun 1999 and the web link given below.

Northern Athapaskan (Athabaskan)

The present 31 Northern Athapaskan (Athabaskan) languages are (were ) spoken in the subarctic in the Interior of Alaska and in the Yukon and in the Northwest Territories in northwestern Canada as well as in the south adjoining areas of the Canadian provinces British Columbia , Alberta , Saskatchewan and Manitoba . Several of these languages, along with Canadian English and Canadian French, are official languages in the Northwest Territories : Chipewyan , Gwich'in , Dogrib , North Slavey and South Slavey .

South Alaska subgroup

1. Ahtna ('Atna' kenaege ') (also: Ahtena, Nabesna, Tanana, Copper River, Mednovskiy; 2015: 45 speakers)
  • Lower Ahtna or Atnahwt'aene (also: Lower Copper River Ahtna)
  • Central Ahtna / Middle Ahtna or Dan'ehwt'aene (also: Central Copper River Ahtna)
  • Western Ahtna or Tsaay Hwt'aene
  • Upper Ahtna or Tatl'ahwt'aene (also: Mentasta Ahtna)
2. Dena'ina (Denaʼina Qenaga) (also: Denaʼinaqʼ, Tanaina, K'naia-khotana, Kenaitze, Kinayskiy; 2007: 75 speakers)
  • Lower Inlet Dena'ina
a. Outer inlet
b. Iliamna
c. inland
  • Upper Inlet Dena'ina

Central Alaska – Yukon subgroup

A. Koyukon

3. Deg Xinag (also: Deg Hit'an, Kaiyuhkhotana, outdated: Ingalik; 2015: 40 speakers)
  • Lower Yukon River (also: Yukon Deg Xinag, Yukon Ingalik)
  • Middle Kuskokwin (also: Kuskokwim Deg Xinag, Kuskokwim Ingalik)
4. Holikachuk (Doogh Qinag) (also: Innoko, Innoka-khotana, Tlëgon-khotana; since 2012 † )
5. Koyukon (Denaakkenaageʼ) (also: Denaakkʼe, Dinaak̲'a, Tenʼa, Co-Youkon, Co-yukon; 2015: 65 speakers)
  • Lower Koyukon (also: Lower Yukon Koyukon)
  • Central Koyukon or Dinaakkanaaga Ts'inh Huyoza (also: Koyukuk River Koyukon)
  • Upper Koyukon (also: Upper Yukon Koyukon)

B. Tanana-Tutchone

6. Upper Kuskokwim (Dinakʼi) (also: Kolchan, Goltsan, Kolchan, outdated: Mcgrath Ingalik; 2007: 40 speakers)

I. Tanana

7. Lower Tanana / Middle Tanana (Menhti Kenaga) (also: Tanana, Minto, Dandey in, Dineh su, Tananatana; 2007: 15 speakers)
  • Minto-Tolovana-Toklat-Nenana-Wood River
a. Minto-Tolovana
b. Toklat
c. Nenana
d. Wood River
  • Chena River ( † )
  • Salcha-Goodpastor ( † )
8. Tanacross (Neeʼaandegʼ) (also: Transitional Tanana, Tanana, Dandey in, Dineh su, Tananatana; 2007: 60 speakers)
  • Mansfield-Kechumstuk (Dihthâad Xt'een Iin Aandeg ')
  • Healy Lake-Joseph Village (Menhdeescheeg-Tehłuug Ninhdeex Ndiig \ de)
9. Upper Tanana (Neeʼaandeegnʼ) (also: Tabesna, Nabesna, Tanana, Dandey in, Dineh su, Tananatana; 2007: approx. 110 speakers)
  • Tetlin (2007: 20 speakers)
  • Nabesna (2007: 2 speakers)
  • Northway (2007: 20 speakers)
  • Scottie Creek (almost † )
  • Beaver Creek / Canadian Upper Tanana (2007: multiple speakers)

II. Tutchone (also: Gens de Bois, Gunana, Nahane, Nahani, Tutchonekutchin)

10. Southern Tutchone (Dän k'è) (also: Dákwänjē, Dän kʼè Kwänje, Ukwänjē, Tu (t) chone, Southern; 2016: 80 speakers)
  • Aishihik Village / Lake (also: Äshèyi, Äshèyi Mǟn, Män Shäw)
  • Tàaʼan Village / Lake (also: Tàa'an Mǟn, Lake Laberge)
  • Klukshu Village / River (also: Łu Ghą, Łu Ghą Chù)
  • Kluane Village / Lake (also: Łù'àn Mǟn; derived from the Tlingit name : Łùxh-àní)
11. Northern Tutchone (Dän k'í) (also: Tu (t) chone, Northern, Selkirk; 2016: 280 speakers)
  • Big Salmon
  • Pelly Crossing
  • Mayo
  • White River

C. Kutchin-Han

12. Gwich'in (Dinjii Zhu 'Ginjik) (also: Dinju Zhuh K'yuu, Gwitch'in, Kutchin, Kootchin, Loucheux, Loucheaux, Takudh, Tukudh)
  • Alaska Gwich'in (also: Westliches Gwich'in; 2012: approx. 300 speakers)
a. Fort Yukon (Gwicyaa Zhee / Gwichyaa Zheh) (also: Yukon Flats Kutchin)
b. Chalkyitsik (Jałgiitsik) (also: Black River, Draan'jik)
c. Deenduu (also: Birch Creek, Tiheetsit'sai)
d. Venetie (Vįįhtąįį) (also: Chandalar River, T'eedriinjik)
e. Arctic Village (Vashrąįį K'ǫǫ) (also: Chandalar River, T'eedriinjik)
  • Canadian Gwich'in (also: Eastern Gwich'in; 2016: 265 speakers)
a. Old Crow (Van Tat) (formerly: Teechik, also: Old Crow River, Chyahnjik)
b. Aklavik (also: Mackenzie River Delta Kutchin, Ehdiitat Gwich'in)
c. Inuvik (also: Nihtat Gwich'in)
d. Tsiigehtchic (formerly: Arctic Red River, also: Arctic Red River Kutchin, Tsiigèhnjik)
e. Fort McPherson (Teet'lit Zheh) (also: Peel River Kutchin, Teetl'it njik)
13. Khan (Häɬ goɬan) (also: Han, Moosehide, Dawson, Gens du Fou, Han Gwich-in, Han Kootchin, Hankutchin)
  • Alaska Hän (2007: approx. 12 speakers)
a. Eagle (Tthee T'äwdlenn)
b. Fairbanks
  • Canadian Hän (approx. 8 speakers)
a. Lousetown / Klondike City (Tr'ochëk)
b. Moosehide / Dawson City / Nuklako (Jutl'à 'K'ät)

Northwest Canada Subgroup

A. Cordillera ( † )

I. Central Cordillera (also: Tahltan-Tagish-Kaska)

14. Tagish (Den k'e) (also: Tā̀gish, Tahk-keesh, Tahkeesh, Tahgish, Tagisch, Si-him-E-na; since 2008 † )
15. Tahltan (Tāłtān zake) (also: Dahdzege, Dah dẕāhge, zake Didene, Didene KEH, Tāłtān, Toltan, Keyehotine, Ticaxhanoten, Nahanni; 2016: 105 speakers)
  • Iskut (also: Łuwe Chōn, Tuwe Chōn)
  • Telegraph Creek (also: Tlego'īn husłīn, Tlegohin)
  • Dease Lake (also: Tatl ah)
16. Kaska (Dene Zágéʼ) (also: Danezāgé ', Kaska Dena, Casca, Kaša, Kɔswa, Gens de (s) Couteaux, Nahanni, Eastern Nahanni; 2016: 190 to 240 speakers)
  • Pelly Banks
  • Frances Lake
  • Ross River
  • Liard River
  • Lower Liard
  • Good Hope Lake

II. Southeastern Cordillera

17. Sekani (Tsekʼehne) (also: Tsek'ene, Tsek'hene, Tθek'ehne; ​​2016: 110 speakers)
18. Dane-zaa (Dane-zaa Ẕáágéʔ) (also: Danezaa, Dunne-za, Deneza, dʌnneza, Tsaaʔ Dane, Tsattine, Beaver, Gens de Castor, ᑕᓀᖚ ᖚᗀᐥ ; 2016: 220 speakers)
highly marked dialects ( glottalized consonant with high tone)
  • Boyer River (Rocky Lane)
  • Child Lake (Eleske)
  • Prophet River
  • Blueberry River
  • Doig River (Hanás Saahgéʔ)
deeply marked dialects (glottalized consonant with low tone)
  • Halfway River (also: Chowade River, Stony River)
  • West Moberly Lake

B. Mackenzie

I. Slave hare

19. South Slavey (Dene Tha) (also: Dené Dháh, Dene Zhatıé, aka Slavey, ᑌᓀ ᒐ ; 2016: over 1,000 speakers)
North Slavey (Sahtúot'ı̨nę Yatı̨́) (2016: over 800 speakers)
20. Mountain Slavey (Shıhgot'ıne) (also: Sih gotine, Sihta gotine, Montagnards, Nahane, Nahani, ᗰᑋᑯᑎᑊᓀ )
21. Bear Lake Slavey (Sahtúgot'ıné) (also: Satudine, Sahtu gotine, Bearlake, ᓴᑋᕲᒼᑯᑎᑊᓀ )
22. Hare Slavey (K'áshogot'ıné) (also: Kawchottine, Ka so gotine, Kancho, Kawchodinneh, Rabbit Skins, Ta-na-tin-ne, ᑲᑊᗱᑯᑎᑊᓀ )
23. Dogrib (Tłįchǫ Yatiì) (also: Tłı̨chǫ, Tlicho, Dǫ Yatıı̀, Goyatıı̀, Thlingchadine; 2016: 1,740 speakers)
  • Tłı̨chǫ (also: Tłįchǫ Yatiì, actually Tlicho)
a. Behchokǫ̀ (also: Rae-Edzo)
b. Gamèti (also: Rae Lakes)
c. Whàtì (also: Lac la Martre)
  • Dettah-Ndilo (also: Detah-Ndilo (Yellowknife) Weledeh, Wıìlıìdeh, Wıı̀ledeh Goèt'ı, Wıı̀lıı̀deh Yatıı̀; mixed dialect of Tłįchǫ-Yellowknife-Chipewyan)

C. Chipewyan

24. Chipewyan (Dëne Sųłıné Yatıé) (also: Dënesųłiné, Dene Suline, Dene Soun'liné, Dëne Dédlıné Yatıé, Tthetsánót'ıné Yatıé, Chipewyan syllabary : ᑌᓀ ᓱᒼᕄᓀ ᔭᕠᐁ ; 2016: 11,435 speakers)
"T" dialects
"K" dialects
  • Yellowknive (also: Tetsǫ́t'ıné Yatıé, Tatsǫ́t'ıné, T'atsaot'ine, Yellowknife)

Tsetsaut subgroup

25. Tsetsaut (Wetaŀ) (also: Tsʼetsʼaut, Wetalh, Wetalth, Nahane, Nahani, Portland Canal Athabaskan; mid-20th century † )

(Central) British Columbia Subgroup

26. Babine-Witsuwitʼen (also: Nedut'en – Witsuwitʼen, Nadotʼen-Wets'uwetʼen, Northern / Western Carrier, Bulkley Valley / Lakes District Carrier; 2016: 120 speakers)
  • Babine (also: Nedut'en, Nadot'en, Nat'oot'en, Babine Carrier)
  • Witsuwitʼen (also: Wets'uwetʼen, Wetsuwet'en, Bulkley Valley Carrier)
27. Carrier (Dakeł) (also: Dakelh, Central / Southern Carrier, Takulie, Takelne, Dakelhne, ᑕᗸᒡ ; 2016: approx. 1,270 speakers)
  • Central Carrier (also: Upper Carrier, Stuart-Trembleur Lake)
Tl'azt'en
Nak'azdli
Yekooche
  • Southern Carrier (also: Lower Carrier)
I. Fraser-Nechako
Cheslatta
Stellako
Nadleh
Saik'uz
Lheidli
II. Blackwater
Lhk'acho (Ulgatcho)
Lhoosk'uz (Kluskus)
Nazko
Lhtakoh (Red Bluff)
28. Chilcotin (Tsilhqot'in) (also: Tŝinlhqot'in, Tsilhqut'in, Tzilkotin; 2016: 805 speakers)
  • Tl'esqox (also: Toosey - Riske Creek / Chilcotin)
  • Tŝi Deldel (also: Redstone - Alexis Creek)
  • Yuneŝit'in (also: Stone - Hanceville)
  • ʔEsdilagh (also: Alexandria)
  • Xeni Gwet'in (also: Nemiah Valley, Nemaiah Valley, Nemaia Valley)
  • Tl'etinqox (also: Anaham / Anahim - Alexis Creek)
29. Nicola (also: Stuwix, Similkameen, Nicola-Similkameen; † )

Sarsi subgroup

30. Tsuut'ina (Tsuut'ina Gunaha) (also: Sarcee, Sarsi, Tsuu T'ina; 2016: 60 speakers)

Kwalhioqua – Clatskanie subgroup

31. Kwalhioqua – Clatskanie (also: Kwalhioqua –Tlatskanie, Klaatshan; before 1930 † ) (also: “Lower Columbia Athapaskisch”)
  • Kwalhioqua (also: Kwalhiokwa, Willapa, Willoopah, Willopah, Wheelapa)
a. Willapa / Wela'pakote'li (also: Owhillpash, Lower Willapa River Valley Kwalhioqua)
b. Suwal / Swaal (also: Upper Willapa River Valley Kwalhioqua)
  • Clatskanie / Tlatskanai (also: Klatskanai, according to tradition originally part of the Suwal)

Pacific Coast Athapaskan (Athabaskan)

The seven (or more) Athapaskan (Athabaskan) languages ​​of the Pacific Coast are (were ) spoken along the Pacific West Coast, as well as the Pacific Northwest of Washington , southern Oregon, and northern California .

California subgroup

1. Hupa (Na꞉tinixwe Mixine꞉wheʼ) (also: Na: tinixwe: -Mixine: we ', Xine: wh, Hupa-Chilula, Chilula, Whilkut, Hoopa-Chilula; 2018: 1 speaker, 2007: 30 L2- Speaker )
  • Hupa
a. Hupa (also: Dining'xine: wh, Hoopa Valley Hupa, aka Hupa)
b. Tsnungwe (also: Tse: ning-xwe, South Fork Hupa, South Fork Trinity River Hupa)
c. Chimalakwe (also: Q'ultsahs-ni, New River Tsnungwe, New River Hupa, bilingual in Hupa and Chimariko)
  • Chilula-Whilkut (also: Xwiy¬q'it-xwe, Xwe: yłq'it-xwe)
a. Chilula (also: Chilula Whilkut, Lower Redwood Creek Hupa, Downstream Redwood Creek Hupa)
b. Whilkut (also: (Upper) Redwood Creek Hupa, Upstream Redwood Creek Hupa)
i. Redwood Creek Whilkut (also: Upper Redwood Creek Whilkut, Kloki Whilkut)
ii. North Fork Whilkut
iii. Mad River Whilkut
2. Mattole – Bear River (since 1950s † )
  • Mattole
  • Bear River
3. Wailaki (also: “Eel River-Athapaskisch”, Lassik, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Saiaz; often viewed as a dialect continuum , since 1960s † )
  • Nongatl (also: Van Duzen River Athapaskisch / Wailaki)
  • Sinkyone (also: Sinkine, South Fork Eel River Athapaskisch / Wailaki)
a. Northern Sinkyone (also: Northern Sinkyone, Lolangkok Sinkyone)
b. Southern Sinkyone (also: Southern Sinkyone, Shelter Cove Sinkyone)
  • Lassik (also: Lower Eel River Athapaskisch / Wailaki)
  • Wailaki (also: Upper Eel River Athapaskisch / Wailaki)
a. Eel River Wailaki (also: Eel Wailaki, actually Eel River Athapaskisch / Wailaki)
b. North Fork Wailaki
c. Pitch Wailaki (also: North Fork Eel River Athapaskisch / Wailaki)
4. Kato or Kineesh (also: Cahto; since 1960s † )

Oregon subgroup

5. Upper Umpqua (also: Etnemitane; since 1950 † )

Rogue River Athapaskan

6a. Lower Rogue River or Tututni (Dotodəni) (also: Upper Coquille, Tututni, Euchre Creek, Chasta Costa; since 1983 † )
  • Upper Coquille (also: Coquille, Ko-Kwell)
a. Coquille (also: Mishikwutinetunne, Mishi-qute-me-tunne)
b. Flores Creek (Village) (also: Kosotshe, Kusu'me, Lukkarso, K'vms-shu'-me ')
  • Tututni
a. Tututunne (also: Tututini, Duu-tuu-dv-ni)
b. Naltunnetunne
c. Mikwunutunne or Mikwonu / Mikwano (also: Mikonotunne)
d. Joshua (also: Yaa-shu da 'me', Chemetunne, Che'-mee-dv-ne)
e. Sixes River (Village) or Duu-tut-nii da ' (also: Kwatami)
f. Pistol River (Village) (also: Chetleshin)
G. Wishtenatin (also: Khwaishtunnetunnne)
  • Euchre Creek or Nee-nuu-ch'vt-da ' (also: Yukichetunne, Yugweeche, Eu-qua-chees)
  • Chasta Costa (Šista Qʼʷə́sta) (also: Illinois River, Chastacosta, Chasta Kosta, Shistakwasta)
6b. Upper Rogue River or Galice-Applegate (also: Galice / Taltushtuntede, Applegate / Dakubetede; since 1963 † )
  • Galice Creek or Báɬda'a (also: Taltushtuntede)
  • Applegate River
a. Nabiltse
b. Dakubetede
c. Gusladada (also: Lower Illinois River)
7. Tolowa (Taa-laa-wa Dee-ni 'Wee-ya') (also: Xvsh-wee-ya ', Wee-ya', Smith River, Chetco, Siletz Dee-ni; 2010: 2 to 3 speakers)
  • Chetco (also: Chit-dee-ni, Siletz Dee-ni, Chetco River)
  • Tolowa (also: Tolowa Dee-ni ', Taa-laa-wa Dee-ni', Smith River)

Southern Athapaskan (Athabaskan) (Apache Languages)

The six (or seven) Southern Athapaskan (Athabaskan) languages or Apache languages are the most geographically isolated language group with no demonstrable contact with the other two groups; This is due to the migration of several Athapaskan-speaking bands to what is now the Southwestern United States , to the adjacent High Plains and Southern Plains, and to northern Mexico . These languages ​​are (were) spoken by the Navajo as well as the various Apache tribes .

Western Apache subgroup

A. COYOTERO-NAVAJO

1. Western Apache (Ndee biyáti '/ Nnee biyáti') (also: Western Apache, Coyotero; 2007: approx. 14,000 speakers)
  • Tonto (Dilzhę́'é) (2007: approx. 1,000 speakers)
a. Northern Tonto
b. Southern Tonto
  • White Mountain (2007: approx. 7,000 speakers - including Cibecue speakers)
  • San Carlos (2007: approx. 6,000 speakers - including Cibecue speakers)
  • Cibecue (no separate count)
2. Navajo (Diné bizaad) (also: Navaho (Naabeehó bizaad); 2011: approx. 170,000 speakers)

B. MESCALERO-CHIRICAHUA

3. Mescalero-Chiricahua (Ndee Bizaa) (also: Chiricahua, Mescalero, Chiricahua-Mescalero, Mescalero Cluster, Apache (Mescalero-Chiricahua), Eastern Apache; 2000: approx. 950 speakers, 2010: only approx. 150 speakers)
  • Mescalero
  • Chiricahua (almost † )
a. Chiricahua or Chokonen
b. Warm Springs or Chihenne

Eastern Apache subgroup

4. Plains Apache (Naishan) (also: Kiowa Apache, Oklahoma Apache, Na'isha, Llanero; since 2008 † )
5. Jicarilla Apache (Abáachi mizaa) (also: Hikariya Apache, Eastern Apache, Jicarilla Apache; 2015: approx. 510 speakers)
6. Lipan Apache (also: Eastern Apache, Lipan Apache; 1981: approx. 3 speakers; today † )

literature

North American languages

  • Marianne Mithun: The Languages ​​of Native North America. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge et al. 1999, ISBN 0-521-23228-7 .
  • Lyle Campbell : American Indian Languages. The historical Linguistics of Native America (= Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. Vol. 4). Oxford University Press, New York NY et al. 1997, ISBN 0-19-509427-1 .
  • Joseph Harold Greenberg : Language in the Americas. Stanford University Press, Stanford CA 1987, ISBN 0-8047-1315-4 .

Athapaskan languages

  • Eung-Do Cook: Athapaskan Linguistics: Proto-Athapaskan Phonology. In: Annual Review of Anthropology. Vol. 10, 1981, ISSN  0084-6570 , pp. 253-273.
  • Eung-Do Cook: A Sarcee Grammar. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver 1984, ISBN 0-7748-0200-6 .
  • Eung-Do Cook, Keren Rice: Introduction. In: Eung-Do Cook, Keren Rice (Eds.): Athapaskan Linguistics. Current Perspectives on a Language Family (= Trends in Linguistics. State-of-the-art Report. Vol. 15). Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin et al. 1989, ISBN 0-89925-282-6 , pp. 1-61.
  • Eung-Do Cook, Keren Rice (Eds.): Athapaskan Linguistics. Current Perspectives on a Language Family (= Trends in Linguistics. State-of-the-art Report. Vol. 15). Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin et al. 1989, ISBN 0-89925-282-6 .
  • Victor K. Golla: Sketch of Hupa, an Athapaskan Language. In: William C. Sturtevant (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 17: Ives Goddard (Ed.): Languages. Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 1996, ISBN 0-16-048774-9 , pp. 364-389.
  • Michael E. Krauss: The Proto-Athapaskan-Eyak and the Problem of Na-Dene: The phonology. In: International Journal of American Linguistics. Vol. 30, No. 2, April 1964, ISSN  0020-7071 , pp. 118-131.
  • Michael E. Krauss: The Proto-Athapaskan-Eyak and the problem of Na-Dene II: The morphology. In: International Journal of American Linguistics. Vol. 31, No. 1, January 1965, pp. 18-28.
  • Michael E. Krauss: Noun-Classification Systems in the Athapaskan, Eyak, Tlingit and Haida verbs. In: International Journal of American Linguistics. Vol. 34, No. 3, July 1968, pp. 194-203.
  • Michael E. Krauss, Victor Golla: Northern Athapaskan languages. In: William C. Sturtevant (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 6: June Helm (Ed.): Subarctic. Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 1981, pp. 67-85.
  • Michael E. Krauss, Jeff Leer: Athabaskan, Eyak, and Tlingit sonorants (= Alaska Native Language Center Research Papers. No. 5). University of Alaska - Alaska Native Language Center, Fairbanks AK 1981, ISBN 0-933769-35-0 .
  • Jürgen Pinnow: The language of the Chiricahua Apaches. With side views of the Mescalero. An overview. Buske, Hamburg 1988, ISBN 3-87118-853-0 .
  • Keren Rice: A Grammar of Slave (= Mouton Grammar Library. Vol. 5). Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin a. a. 1989, ISBN 3-11-010779-1 .

See also

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ William Bright: Native American Place Names of the United States. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman 2004, p. 52
  2. ^ Alaska Native Language Center : "The Name Athabascan"
  3. ^ Ethnologue : Language Family Trees - Athapaskan
  4. ↑ One way of saying Dene?
  5. ^ Gary Holton: Groups: Alaska Native Language Relationships and Family Trees. ( Memento of the original of September 2, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. University of Alaska Fairbanks , undated, accessed August 20, 2014. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.uaf.edu
  6. ↑ Overview: Alaska Native Languages. In: Alaskool Central. UAA-ISER, 1998–2004, accessed on August 20, 2014 (English).
  7. ↑ on the other hand, a distinction is often made between only four dialects (without subdialects): Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet, Iliamna and Inland
  8. ↑ the name “Ingalik” (from Central Alaskan Yup'ik Ingqiliq - “ Athabasken ”, literally: “Those who have lice eggs ”), most widely used in the older literature, is felt by the Deg Xit'an as an offense and is offensive by them rejected and is therefore no longer in use.
  9. ↑ The following “Lower Tanana” dialects are sometimes mentioned: Toklat (Tutlʼot) dialect, Minto Flats-Nenana River dialect: Minto (Menhti) and Nenana (Nina Noʼ), Chena (Chʼenoʼ) River dialect, Salcha (Sol Chaget ) River dialect
  10. ↑ Often “Southern Tutchone” and “Northern Tutchone” are not viewed as separate languages, but merely as varieties of a common “Tutchone language”
  11. ↑ Statistics Canada, 2016 Census of Population - Aboriginal Mother Tongue (Data tables, 2016 Census)
  12. ↑ some linguists consider these three languages ​​to be divergent, but mutually understandable dialects of a common language (Mithun 1999) - thus they formed a dialect continuum (the greater the distance between the places, the greater the differences and accordingly the communication becomes more difficult.)
  13. ↑ is sometimes viewed as a single language with four regional dialects - but here each variety is viewed as a separate language
  14. ↑ Yellowknives Dene First Nation - Our Language - Notes on Wıı̀lıı̀deh and Tetsǫ́t'ıné
  15. ↑ is mostly seen as a Chipewyan dialect, but they developed their own identity as an ethnic group
  16. ↑ Very little is known about Tsetsaut, which is why it is routinely classified in its own preliminary subgroup
  17. ↑ The Nicola language is so poorly documented that it is impossible to determine its position within the family. It has been suggested by some as an isolated branch of chilcotin.
  18. ↑ The Kwalhioqua-Clatskanie language may belong to the subgroup of Pacific Coast Athapaskan, but has slightly more in common with the languages ​​of Northern Athapaskan than with the languages ​​of the Pacific coast (Leer 2005). Together with Nicola, she thus forms a kind of fictional bridge between the north and the Pacific coast-Athapaskisch (Krauss 1979/2004).
  19. ↑ Kayla Rae Begay - Wailaki Grammar
  20. ↑ Sometimes the "Lower" and "Upper" Rogue River are viewed as two different, but closely related, languages
  21. ↑ In contrast to Mithun (1999) and Campbell (1997), Hoijer's classification regards “Mescalero” and “Chiricahua” as different languages, although they are mutually understandable - Ethnologue , however, regards them as one language with two dialect variants . Western Apache (especially the Tonto Apache (Dilzhe'e) variety ) and Navajo are closer to each other than to Mescalero or Chiricahua.
  22. ↑ Since the Tonto Apache often formed bilingual bands together with Wi: pukba / Wipukepa and Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya of the Yavapai , they spoke a strong Yavapai accent with a distinctive and for other Apache sounding speech melody , which is often referred to as "Singsang" .