Apache languages

The various Apache languages or South Athapaskan languages , also South Athapaskan or simply Apache , form a subunit of the Athapaskan language family , which is a branch of Na-Dené . They are spoken by around 170,000 members of the Diné (Navajo) and various Apache tribes in the southwestern United States (in the states of Arizona , New Mexico and Oklahoma , but also in Colorado and Utah ). The most important Apache language is Navajo with 150,000 speakers.

Position within the Na Dené languages

The Apache languages form a subunit of Na-Dené. The following diagram shows the position of the Apache languages within the Na-Dené (external classification).

Na-Dené
- Tlingit (single language)
- Eyak-Athapaskan
  - Eyak (single language)
  - Athapaskan
    - Northern Athapaskan (including Chipewyan, Dogrib, Slave-Montain-Bearlake-Hare, Babine-Witsuwit'en, Carrier)
    - Pacific Coast Athapaskan (almost †)
    - South Athapaskan (Apache Languages)

Internal classifications

Mithun and Campbell

According to Mithun (1999) and Campbell (1997), the Apache languages can be divided into two groups - the Western Apache and the Eastern Apache, the number of speakers is based on Ethnologue 2005 and the web link given below.

A. Western Apache (Western Apache)

COYOTERO-NAVAJO

1. Western Apache or Ndéé biyáti , Nnee biyati (also Coyotero Apache ) (13,000 speakers, 300 of them in San Carlos)

a. Tonto or Dilzhę́'é

i. Northern Tonto

ii.Southern Tonto

b. White Mountain

c. San Carlos

d. Cibecue

2. Navajo or Naabeehó bizaad , Diné bizaad (also Navahu ) (150,000 speakers)

MESCALERO-CHIRICAHUA or Ndee Bizaa (1,500 speakers, mostly Mescalero)

a. Mescalero

b. Chiricahua (175 speakers, 149 of them in the Mescalero Apache Reservation in New Mexico, the rest in Fort Sill, Oklahoma)

B. Eastern Apache (Eastern Apache)

1. Plains Apache or Kiowa Apache , often called Naishan (almost †)

2. Jicarilla or Abáachi , Abáachi mizaa (also Hikariya ) (1,000 speakers)

3. Lipan (possibly 2 speakers or already †)

Mescalero and Chiricahua are viewed as dialect forms of a language (Mithun 1999). Western Apache and Navajo are more closely related than either to Mescalero-Chiricahua. Lipan is extinct, Plains Apache has very few speakers. Chiricahua is also endangered. Western Apache, Mescalero and Jicarilla are still learned by some of the adolescents, but they are also considered to be endangered in the long term. Navajo is by far the largest indigenous North American language, but use among first graders has decreased to 30% (New York Times, April 9, 1998).

Hoijer and Opler

The linguist and anthropologist Harry Hoijer , on the other hand, divides the seven Apache languages into 2 groups:

(I) Plains Group and

(II) Southwestern Group

The Plains Apache is the only language of the Plains Group and the Southwestern Group can be further subdivided into two subgroups: (A) Western Apache (Western Apache) and (B) Eastern Apache (Eastern Apache) .

I. PLAINS GROUP (Plains Group)

Plains Apache or Kiowa Apache , increasinglycalled Naishan (1–2? Speaker, Alfred Chalepah, Jr., possibly the last native speaker died in 2008, therefore possibly already †, not used as a second language, status: 2008)

II. SOUTHWESTERN GROUP (Southwestern Group)

A. Western Apache (Western Apache)

1. Chiricahua-Mescalero or Ndee Bizaa (fewer than 750 speakers, mostly Mescalero, as of 2007, 2008)

a. Chiricahua (approx. 12 speakers in the Mescalero Apache Reservation and 3 speakers with some rudimentary language skills in Fort Sill, status: 2007, 2008)

i. actually Chiricahua (Chokonen)

ii. Warm Springs (Chihenne)

b. Mescalero (1,625 speakers in New Mexico)

2. Navajo or Naabeehó bizaad , Diné bizaad (also Navahu ) (171,000 speakers, as of 2007)

3. Western Apache or Ndéé biyáti , Nnee biyati (also Coyotero Apache ) (approx. 14,000 speakers, most of them passive, 65 percent of them in San Carlos and Fort Apache, as of 2007)

a. Tonto or Dilzhę́'é (approx. 1,000 speakers, as of 2007)

i. Northern Tonto (in the Yavapai-Apache Nation Indian Reservation (formerly Camp Verde) and Yavapai-Prescott Indian Reservation (both shared with Yavapai))

ii.Southern Tonto (in the Tonto Apache Reservation, in the Fort McDowell Indian Reservation (shared with Yavapai) and the San Carlos Apache and Fort Apache Indian Reservations (both shared with tribes of the Western Apache))

b. White Mountain (approx.7,000 speakers in the Fort Apache Reservation, as of 2007)

c. San Carlos (approx. 6,000 speakers in the San Carlos Reservation, as of 2007)

d. Cibecue

B. Eastern Apache (Eastern Apache)

1. Jicarilla or Abáachi , Abáachi mizaa (also Hikariya ) (approx. 300 speak as their mother tongue, as well as approx. 512 other speakers who have little language skills, status: 2007)

2. Lipan

Hoijer's classification is based primarily on the differences in the pronunciation of the first consonant of noun and verb. His earlier (1938, Hoijer and Opler) classification had only two branches - Plains Apache being the Eastern Apache branch (along with Jicarilla and Lipan) was counted.

In contrast to Mithun (1999) and Campbell (1997), Mescalero and Chiricahua are regarded as different languages, although they are mutually understandable (Ethnologue, however, regards them as one language with two dialect variants. Western Apache (especially the Tonto Apache (Dilzhe'e ) - variety ) and Navajo are closer to each other than to Mescalero or Chiricahua.

Comparative word list

The degree of the relationship between the Apache languages can be seen from the following table, which contains word equations according to the Swadesh list from the languages Navajo, Chiricahua, Western Apache (San Carlos dialect), Jicarilla and Lipan:

	Navajo	Chiricahua	Western Apache	Jicarilla	Lipan
I	shí	shí	shíí	shí	shí
you	ni	ⁿdí	ⁿdi	ni	ⁿdí
we	nihí	náhí	nohwíí	nahí	nahí
lots	łą́	łą́	łą́ą́	łá	łą́
one	ła '	ła '	ła'-	ła '	ła'-
two	naaki	naaki	naaki	naaki	naaki
big	- so	- so	- so	- so	- so
long	-neez	-neez	-neez	-ⁿdees	-ⁿdiis
narrow	-yáázh	-zą́ą́yé	-zhaazh	-zhááh	-zhą́ą́yí
woman	'asdzání	'isdzáń	'isdzánhń	'isdzání	'isdzání
man	diné	nⁿdé	nnéé	diⁿdé	diⁿdí
fish	łóó '	łóí '	log	łógee	łǫ́ '
dog	łééchą́ą́'í	kéjaa	łį́į́chaayáné	łį́'chaa'á	nii'łį́
louse	yaa '	yaa	yaa '	yaa '	yaa
tree	tsin	tsin	ch'il	nooshchíí	chish
leaf	-t'ąą '	-t'ąą	-t'ąą '	-t'ąą '	-t'ąą '
flesh	-tsį '	-tsįį	-tsį '	-tsį	-tsįį
blood	dił	dił	dił	dił	dił
bone	ts'in	ts'į '	ts'in	-ts'in	-ts'įh
fat	-k'ah	k'ah	k'ah	xéh	xáí
egg	-ghęęzhii	-gheezhe	-ghęęzh	-gheezhi	-ghaish
horn	-dee '	-dee '	-dee '	-dee '	-dii '
Rump	-tsee '	-tsee '	-tsee '	-tsee '	-dzistsii '
feather	-t'a '	-t'a '	-t'a '	-t'a '	-t'a '
hair	-ghaa '	-ghaa	-ghaa	-ghaa '	-ghaa
head	-tsii '	-tsii	-tsii	-tsii	-tsii '
ear	-zhaa '	-zhaa	-Yes a	-Yes a	-Yes a
eye	-náá '	-ⁿdáa	-náá	-ⁿdáá	-ⁿdáa
nose	-´-chį́į́h	-´-chį́	-chį́h	-chį́sh	-´-chį́sh
mouth	-zéé '	-zé	-zé '	-zé '	-zí '
tooth	-ghoo '	-ghoo	-ghoo '	-ghoo	-ghoo
tongue	-tsoo '	-zaade	-zaad	-zaadi	-zaadi
claw	-s-gaan	-s-gan	-gan	-s-gan	-s-gąą
foot	-kee '	-kee	-kee '	-kee	-kii
knee	-god	-go '	-god	-go '	-goh
hand	-'-la '	-laa	-la '	-la '	-laa '
belly	-bid	-bi'	-bid	-bi'	-bih
neck	-k'os	-k'os	-k'os	-k'os	-k'os
chest	-be '	-be '	-be '	-be '	-bi'
heart	-jéí	-jéí	-jíí	-jéé	-jíí
drink	-dlą́	-dlą́	-dlą́	-dlą́ '	-dlą́
eat	-yą́	-yą́	-yą́ą́	-yą́ '	-yą́
bite	-gháásh	-gháásh	-gháásh	-ghą́sh	-dląsh
see	-'į́	-'į́	-'į́į́	-'į́	-'į́
Listen	-ts'į́į́h	-ts'a '	-ts'ag	-ts'ą́ '	-ts'ah
sleep	-ghosh	-ghosh	-ghosh	-ghosh	-ghosh
to die	-tsaah	-tsaa	-tsaa	-tsei	-tsaa
kill	-ghé	-ghé	-ghéé	-ghéh	-gháí
swim	-kǫ́ǫ́h	-kǫǫ	-kǫǫ	-kǫ́h	-kǫǫ
to fly	-t'ááh	-t'á	-t'ah	-t'áíh	-t'ah
lying	-tį́	-tį́	-tį́	-kį́	-kį́
sit	-there	-there	-dáá	-there	-there
stand	-zį́	-zį́	-zį́	-zį́	-zį́
say	-ní	-ⁿdí	-níí	-níh	-níh
Sun	jóhonaa'áí	jį́gonaa'áí	yaa'áí	jį́gonaa'áí	jį́į́'naa'áí
moon	'ooljéé'	tł'éé'naa'áí	tł'éé'gonaa'áí	tł'éé'gonaa'áí	tł'éénaa'áí
star	sǫ '	sǫǫs	ts'iiłsǫǫsé	sǫǫs	sǫǫs
water	tó	tó	tóó	kó	kó
rain	-tą́	-tą́	-tą́ą́	-ką́h	-ką
stone	tsé	tsé	tséé	-tsé	tsí
sand	sáí	sáí '	sáí	sáí	sáí
earth	ni '	nii	ni '	nii	nii '
cloud	k'os	k'os	yáák'os	ńł-tsą́	k'os
smoke	lid	łi '	lid	łi '	łih
Fire	kǫ '	kǫǫ	kǫ '	kǫ '	kǫǫ '
ash	łeeshch'iih	gooshch'ii	'ił-ch'ii	goshch'íísh	goshts'iish
burn	-k'ą́ą́h	-k'ąą	-k'ą́ą́	-k'ą́	-k'ą́
path	'a-tiin	'íń-tin	'i-tin	'íńkin	'iníkįį
red	-chíí '	-chí	-chíí	-chíí '	-chísh
green	-tł'izh	-tł'izh	-tł'izh	-tł'ish	-tł'ish
yellow	- so	-tso '	-sog	-tso '	- so
White	-gia	-ga '	-gai	-gai	-gah
black	-zhin	-zhį '	dił-xił	-zhį	-zhįh
night	tł'éé '	tł'é	tł'é '	tł'é '	tł'í '
hot	-do	-do'	-dog	-do'	-doh
cold	-k'az	-k'az	-k'az	-cheese	-cheese
full	-am	-bi'	-bi	-bįh	-bįh
Surname	-´-zhi '	-´-zhii	-˛́˛́-zhi '	-zhi '	-´-zhii '
three	táá '	táá '	táági	káá '	káí'í
four	dį́į́ '	dį́į́ '	dį́į́'í	dį́į́ '	dį́į́'í
Day	jį́	jį́	jį́į́	jį́ '	jį́
fog	'ááh	'áá'	'áád	naoshigiji	naashigish
wind	ńł-ch'i	nł-ch'i '	'įįł-ch'i	ńł-ch'i '	ńł-ch'ih
flow	-lį́	-lį́	-lį́į́	-lį́ '	-lį́
to wash	-gis	-gis	-gis	-dé, -dee '	-dá, -daa '
worm	ch'osh	ch'osh	ch'osh	ch'osh	ch'osh
leg	-jáád	-jade	-jád	-jádí	-jádí
poor	-gaan	-gan	-gan	-gan	-gąą '
lip	-daa '	-there'	-zá-baané	-daa	-daa
guts	-ch'íí '	-ch'í	-ch'i '	-ch'é '	-ch'í '
saliva	shéé '	-zhé	-zhíg	-zhégi	-zhá-tł'ishdi
grass	tł'oh	tł'oh	tł'oh	tł'oh	-tł'oh
mother	-má	-má	-máá	-má	-'- nándí
father	-zhé'é	-taa	-taa	-ka'é	-'aashí
ice	tin	tį '	tįh	'į́-loh	kįh
snow	yas	zas	zas	zas	zas
lazy	-dzid	-dzi '	-yid	-dzi '	-dzih
smell	-chin	-chį '	-chą́ą́	-chą́ '	-chą́
fear	-dzid	-dzi '	-dzid	-dzi '	-dzih
rope	tł'óół	tł'óół	tł'óół	tł'ół	tł'óół

Phonology

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All Apache languages have a similar phonology , a similar sound system. The following description focuses on the language of the Western Apaches. One can assume slight variations of this description in other, related languages. Compare e.g. B. Navajo , Jicarilla , Chiricahua .

Consonants

The Apache languages generally have a consonant repertoire similar to the set of 33 consonants shown below (mainly based on the Western Apache language):

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Alveolar	Lateral	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
		Bilabial	Alveolar	( Affricative Series)			Velar	Glottal
Plosive	unaspirated	p	t	ʦ	tɬ	ʧ	k
	aspirated		tʰ	ʦʰ	tɬʰ	ʧʰ	kʰ
	glottalized		t '	ʦ '	tɬ '	ʧ '	k '	ʔ
	prenasalized	( ^m b)	( ⁿ d / d / n)
nasal	easy	m	n
nasal	glottalized	(ˀm)	(ˀn)
Fricative	Unvoiced			s	ɬ	ʃ	x	H
Fricative	Voiced			z	l	ʒ	ɣ
Approximant						j

Orthography of the consonants

The practical orthography corresponds relatively well to the pronunciation of South Athapaskan (compared to the writing systems of German or Vietnamese). The following table shows the phonetic notation with the corresponding orthographic symbol:

IPA	Spelling	IPA	Spelling	IPA	Spelling	IPA	Spelling
[t]	d	[tʰ]	t	[t ']	t '	[j]	y
[k]	G	[kʰ]	k	[k ']	k '	[H]	H
[ʦ]	dz	[ʦʰ]	ts	[ʦ ']	ts'	[ʔ]	'
[ʧ]	j	[ʧʰ]	ch	[ʧ ']	ch '	[l]	l
[tɮ]	dl	[tɬʰ]	tł	[tɬ ']	tł '	[ɬ]	ł
[p]	b	[pʰ]	p	[ ^m b]	b / m	[ ⁿ d]	d / n / nd
[s]	s	[ʃ]	sh	[m]	m	[n]	n
[z]	z	[ʒ]	zh	[ʔm]	'm	[ʔn]	'n
[x]	H
[ɣ]	gh

Some spelling conventions:

The fricative [⁠ h ⁠] and [⁠ x ⁠] , both as h written. (see 2.)
The Fricativ [⁠ x ⁠] is commonly called h written after one o but as a hw (as can [X] be pronounced).
The Fricativ [⁠ ɣ ⁠] is in most cases than gh written, but before i and e it is called y posted and how [⁠ ʝ ⁠] pronounced. Before an o it is written as w and pronounced like [ɣʷ] .
All words beginning with a vowel are pronounced with a glottal stop ' [⁠ ʔ ⁠] . But this crackling sound is never written at the beginning of a word.
Some words are pronounced either d or n or nd , depending on the speaker's dialect . In the table above this is illustrated by [ ⁿ d] . In a few words, the same goes for b and m .
In many words, n can appear as a separate syllable: [n̩] . However, the spelling does not indicate when this is the case.

Vowels

Southern Athapaskan languages have four opposing tongue positions (as described in "practical" orthography):

	Front	Central	Back
Above	i
center	e		O
Below		a

These vowels can be long or short and oral (i.e. not nasal) or nasal. Nasal vowels are indicated by an ogonek (or nasal hook) ˛ (borrowed from Polish orthography) in the Western Apache, Navajo, Chiricahua, and Mescalero languages , while the nasal vowels in Jicarilla are indicated by underlining the vowel. This results in 16 different vowels:

		Top-front	Center-front	Center-back	Bottom-central
Orally	short	i	e	O	a
Orally	long	ii	ee	oo	aa
nasal	short	į	ę	ǫ	ą
nasal	long	įį	ęę	ǫǫ	ąą

IPA equivalents for oral vowels:

i =[⁠ ɪ ⁠], ii = [ i ], e =[⁠ ɛ ⁠], ee = [ ɛː ] o =[⁠ o ⁠], oo = [ ʊː ], a =[⁠ ɐ ⁠], aa = [ ɑː ].

Orthography of the vowels

In the Western Apache language, there is a practice in which the orthographic vowels o and oo are written as u in certain cases . In these cases there are no nasalized vowels, which is why the nasal u never appears in the orthography. This (perhaps somewhat contradictory) practice has been maintained to the present day.

However, in Harry Hoijer and other works by American linguists, all o -owels are spelled as o . Similarly, the Navajo does not use the orthographic u , but consistently writes this vowel as o .

In Chiricahua and Mescalero this vowel is written as u in all cases (also with the nasalized ų ).

Other practices may be in use in other Apache languages.

Sounds

The South Athapaskan languages are tonal languages . Hoijer and other linguists have determined 4 tone qualities: (American notation):

high (marked by accent acute ´ , example: á )
deep (marked by accent grave ` , example: à )
ascending (as indicated by circumflex , for example: â )
descending (indicated by háček , for example: ǎ )

Ascending or descending tones are less common in language; if so, then often before or after morphemes or on long vowels. Vowels can have tones, but also the syllable n : ń .

In practice, this system is simplified by only marking high notes and leaving the low notes unchanged:

high tone: á
low tone: a

Instead of the earlier nìzìz , one now writes niziz .

In addition, an ascending tone on a long vowel is indicated by an unchanged first vowel and an accent acute on the second, or vice versa for a descending tone:

ascending: aá (instead of the actual â )
descending: áa (instead of the actual: ǎ · )

Nasal vowels can also have tones, which then leads to two diacritical marks with a high tone: ą́ . Recently de Reuse (see below) found out that Western Apache also has a medium tone, which he marks with a macron ( ¯ ), e.g. B. ō or ǭ . In Chiricahua , a descending tone can occur with the syllable n : n .

Some contrasting vowel examples with nasalization, tone and length from the Chiricahua Apache:

chąą 'feces'

chaa 'beaver'

shiban 'my suede'

shibán 'my bread'

bik'ai ' ' his hip '

bík'ai ' ' his mother-in-law '

hah'aał 'you two will chew this'

hah'ał 'you two are chewing it right now'

morphology

Typological overview

From a typological point of view, the South Athapaskan languages are partly agglutinative (stringing together of prefixes and suffixes), but mainly fusional , polysynthetic , nominative-accusative and beginning-end-oriented. The canonical word order is subject-object predicate , as can be seen in the following Navajo example:

mósí tsídii yiníł'į́ 'The cat looks at the bird.'

Subject = mósí 'the cat'

Object = tsídii 'the bird'

Predicate = yiníł'į́ 'she looks at it'

South Athapaskan words are mainly modified by prefixes , which is unusual for subject-object-predicate languages, as they mostly use suffixes .

The Apache languages are "verb-heavy" - they often use verbs, but relatively few nouns. In addition to verbs and nouns, these languages have other parts of speech such as pronouns , clitics , numeralia , adverbs and conjunctions . Harry Hoijer summarized all of these in a collective phrase particle . There is no equivalent to German adjectives. Adjectival terms are expressed through participles of verbs.

Verbal morphology

The key element in the South Athapaskan languages is the verb , and it is notorious for its complexity. Some noun terms are expressed through verbs, such as in Navajo :

Hoozdo ' Phoenix, Arizona ' (literally: the place is hot ) and
ch'é'étiin 'entrance' (literally: something has a horizontal way out ).

Many complex nouns are also derived from substantiated verbs (again in Navajo ):

ná'oolkiłí 'clock' (literally: one that moves slowly in a circle )
chidí naa'na'í bee'eldǫǫhtsoh bikáá 'dah naaznilígíí ' army tank '(literally: a car that you sit on top of, that crawls around with a big thing that you make an explosion with ).

Verbs are composed of the word stem to which an inflection and / or derivation is added as a prefix. Every verb has at least one prefix. The prefixes are added to the verb in a specific order.

The South Athapaskan verb can be broken down into various morphological components. The root of the verb is composed of an abstract root and a (often inflected) suffix. This root word together with a classifying prefix (and sometimes other thematic ones) forms the subject of the verb. The topic is then combined with derivational prefixes, which in turn make up the base of the verb. Finally, inflectional prefixes are placed in front of the baisis (which Young & Morgan call “paradigmatic prefixes”) - the verb is then complete. The following table shows this schematically:

abstract word stem
Stem	= abstract word stem + suffix
theme	= Word stem + classifying (s) (+ thematizing (s)) prefix (s)
Base	= Subject + derivational prefix (s)
verb	= Base + inflectional prefix (s)

Prefixes

The prefixes that are used in a verb are in a fixed order. This type of morphology is position class formation ( position class template ) or stopgap Education ( slot-and-filler template called). The following is a table of a system for the formation of Navajo verbs (Young & Morgan 1987). Edward Sapir and Harry Hoijer were the first to undertake such an investigation. Not every verb has a prefix in every possible place; in fact, most Navajo verbs are not as complicated as the template seems to lead one to believe.

A verb in Navajo has three main parts:

disjoint prefixes	conjunct prefixes	Stem

These components can be further broken down into eleven headings, some of which have further sub-sections:

Disjunct
0	1a	1b	1c	1d	1e	2	3
object	trailing zero ( zero postposition )	derivational-thematic	reflexive	reversing	repeating once	repeating	distributive plural

conjunct								Stem
4th	5	6a	6b	6c	7th	8th	9	10
Accusative object	deictic subject	derived thematic aspect	derived thematic aspect	temporarily causative	modal aspect	subject	"classifying"	Stem

Although prefixes are generally in a specific position, some prefixes change the order through metathesis .

For example, in Navajo, the prefix a- (3i object pronoun) usually comes before di- , as in

adisbąąs ' I am starting to drive a vehicle with wheels' [< 'a- + di- + sh- + ł + -bąąs ].

But if a- appears together with the prefixes di- and ni- , the a- swaps the order with di- , and the order becomes di- + a- + ni- , as in

di'nisbąąs ' I'm about to drive a vehicle (into something) and get stuck '[< di-'a-ni-sh-ł-bąąs < ' a- + di- + ni- + sh- + ł + -bąąs ] (at the same time the a- is reducedto - )

instead of the expected adinisbąąs ( a-di-ni-sh-ł-bąąs ). Metathesis is triggered by the phonological context (Young & Morgan 1987: 39).

Class-forming verbs

The South Athapaskan languages have verb stems that classify a particular object according to its shape or other physical properties in addition to its movement or status. These verb stems are called class-forming and identified by a corresponding acronym. There are eleven major stems of class-forming action words in Navajo, listed below in the Perfect . Other South Athapaskan languages have a slightly different set of stems.

Classifier and stem	designation	Explanation	Examples
-'ą́	SRO (Solid Roundish Object)	solid, round object	Bottle, ball, boot, can, etc.
-yíň	LPB (Load, Pack, Burden)	Load, load	Backpack, bundle, sack, saddle, etc.
-ł-jool	NCM (Non-Compact Matter)	loose thing	Bundles of hair or grass, cloud, fog, etc.
-lá	SFO (Slender Flexible Object)	thin, flexible object	Rope, mitt, socks, pile of fried onions, etc.
-tą́	SSO (Slender Stiff Object)	thin, solid object	Arrow, bracelet, pan, saw, etc.
-ł-tsooz	FFO (Flat Flexible Object)	flat, flexible object	Blanket, coat, sack of groceries, etc.
-tłéé '	MM (Mushy Matter)	soft, pulpy object	Ice cream, slush, slumped drunk, etc.
-Nile	PLO1 (plural objects 1)	Plural objects 1	Eggs, balls, animals, coins, etc.
-Yes a'	PLO2 (plural objects 2)	Plural objects 2	Marbles, seeds, sugar, beetles, etc.
-ką́	OC (Open Container)	open container	Glass of milk, spoon with food, handful of flour etc.
-ł-tį́	ANO (Animate Object)	object filled with soul	Microbe, person, corpse, doll, etc.

Compared to German, Navajo does not have a single word that corresponds to German to give . Instead, the word is expressed through eleven different verbs, depending on the property of the given object. To be the equivalent of give me some hay! To express it, the Navajo verb níłjool (NCM) must be used, while for Give me a cigarette! the verb nítįįh (SSO) is used.

In addition to describing the physical properties of an object, the main class-forming verb stems can also differentiate between the types of movement of the object. The tribes can be grouped into three different categories:

promoted
driven
freefall

Promoted includes activities such as carrying, lowering, and taking. Powered involves skidding, dropping and throwing. Free fall includes falling and space flight.

With an example from the SRO category, there is Navajo

-'ą́ (a round object) convey ,

-ne (a round object) throw , and

-l-ts'id (a round object) moves on its own .

In addition, the South Athapaskan languages have other similar verb stems, which Young & Morgan (1987) call secondary class-forming verbs .

(The term classifier is used in Athapaskan linguistics for a prefix that expresses transitivity or serves as a thematic prefix, and is thus a somewhat misleading term. These transitivity classifiers are not involved in the classification of nouns by the class-forming word stems and are in no relation to the term classifier from Chinese or Thai).

Category of soulfulness

Like most of the Athapaskan languages, the Apache languages also show different grammatical levels of soulfulness, with different nouns requiring certain verb forms depending on their degree of soulfulness. Navajo nouns, for example, can be classified on a soulfulness scale from very animated (a person) to not animated at all (an abstract term) (Young & Morgan 1987: 65-66):

People / lightning → children / large animals → medium-sized animals → small animals → insects → forces of nature → inanimate objects → abstract concepts

In general, the most animated noun must appear first in a sentence, while the noun with less soul must appear second. If both nouns have the same soulfulness, each can come first. Therefore, both example sentences (1) and (2) are correct. The yi prefix of the verb indicates that the first noun, and bi- that the second noun is the subject.

(1)	Ashkii	at'ééd	yiníł'į́.
	Boy	girl	yi -look
	'The boy looks at the girl.'

(2)	At'ééd	ashkii	biníł'į́.
	girl	Boy	bi -look
	'The boy is looking at the girl.'

However, example (3) sounds wrong to most Navajo because the less animated noun appears before the more animated noun:

(3)	* Tsídii	at'ééd	yishtąsh.
	bird	girl	yi -picked
	'The bird pecked the girl.'

To express this process, the more soulful object must first be named, as in example (4):

(4)	At'ééd	tsídii	bishtąsh.
	girl	bird	bi- picked
	'The girl was pecked by the bird.'

Individual evidence

↑ Apaches work to save language ( Memento from November 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
↑ NAISHAN DENE 1 CREATIVITY WITH MONSTERS
^ Tonto Apache and its position within Apachean
↑ MultiTree: Jicarilla Apache
^ Ethnologue - Apache, Mescalero-Chiricahua

literature

General

Berghaus, Heinrich. (1851). About the relationship between the Shoshone, Comanche and Apache, according to their language relationship. Physical atlas. Geographical yearbook for the communication of all important recent research , 3 , 48-62.
Grimes, Barbara F. (Ed.). (2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-106-9 . (Online edition: http://www.ethnologue.com/ , accessed on Nov. 19th, 2004.)
Hoijer, Harry. (1938). The southern Athapaskan languages. American Anthropologist , 40 (1), 75-87.
Hoijer, Harry. (1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. International Journal of American Linguistics , 11 (1), 13-23.
Hoijer, Harry. (1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics , 11 (4), 193-203.
Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. International Journal of American Linguistics , 12 (1), 1-13.
Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. International Journal of American Linguistics , 12 (2), 51-59.
Hoijer, Harry. (1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes. International Journal of American Linguistics , 14 (4), 247-259.
Hoijer, Harry. (1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex. International Journal of American Linguistics , 15 (1), 12-22.
Hoijer, Harry. (1956). The Chronology of the Athapaskan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics , 22 (4), 219-232.
Hoijer, Harry. (1963). The Athapaskan languages. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), Studies in the Athapaskan languages (pp. 1-29). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Hoijer, Harry (Ed.). (1963). Studies in the Athapaskan languages . University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Hoijer, Harry. (1971). The position of the Apachean languages in the Athapaskan stock. In KH Basso & ME Opler (Eds.), Apachean culture history and ethnology (pp. 3-6). Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona (No. 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Hymes, Dell H. (1957). A note on Athapaskan glottochronology. International Journal of American Linguistics , 22 (4), 291-297.
Dear Harkot, Marie-Louise. (1984). A comparison of Apachean languages, exemplified by the verb system for handling verbs. In H. Krenn, J. Niemeyer, & U. Eberhardt (Eds.), Language and Text: Akten des 18: Linguistic Colloquium, Linz 1983 . Linguistic work (Max Niemeyer Verlag) (Nos. 145-146). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. ISBN 3-484-30145-7 (Vol. 1); ISBN 3-484-30146-5 (Vol. 2).
de Reuse, Willem J. (2001). Prototypes and fuzziness in the system and usage of Apachean classificatory verb stems. In S. Tuttle & G. Holton (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2001 Athabaskan Languages Conference (No. 1, pp. 75-94). Fairbanks, AL: Alaska Native Language Center.
de Reuse, Willem J. (2004). [personal communication].
Sapir, Edward. (1936). Linguistic evidence suggestive of the northern origin of the Navaho. American Anthropologist , 38 (2), 224-235.
Young, Robert W. (1983). Apachean languages. In A. Ortiz, WC Sturtevant (Eds.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 393-400). Washington: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-004579-7 .

Chiricahua

Hoijer, Harry. (n. d.). Chiricahua Apache stems. (Unpublished manuscript).
Hoijer, Harry. (1938). Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-404-15783-1 .
Hoijer, Harry. (1939). Chiricahua loan-words from Spanish. Language , 15 (2), 110-115.
Hoijer, Harry. (1946). Chiricahua Apache. In C. Osgood (Ed.), Linguistic structures in North America . New York: Wenner-Green Foundation for Anthropological Research.
Opler, Morris E., & Hoijer, Harry. (1940). The raid and war-path language of the Chiricahua Apache. Language , 42 (4), 617-634.
Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988). The language of the Chiricahua Apaches: With side views of the Mescalero [ The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero ]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Sam Kenoi's "Coyote and the Whiteman": Contact in and out of a Chiricahua narrative. In A. Trefzer & RL Murray (Eds.), Reclaiming Native American cultures, proceedings of the Native American Symposium (pp. 67-80). Durant, OK: Southeastern Oklahoma State University.
Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Sam Kenoi's coyote stories: Poetics and rhetoric in some Chiricahua Apache narratives. American Indian Culture and Research Journal , 23 , 137-163.
Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Lisandro Medez's "Coyote and Deer": On reciprocity, narrative structures, and interactions. American Indian Quarterly , 23 , 1-24.

Mescalero

Breunginger, Evelyn; Hugar, Elbys; & Lathan, Ellen Ann. (1982). Mescalero Apache dictionary . Mescalero: NM: Mescalero Apache Tribe.
Hoijer, Harry. (1938). Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-404-15783-1 .
Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988). The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero . Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
Rushforth, Scott. (1991). Uses of Bearlake and Mescalero (Athapaskan) classificatory verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics , 57 , 251-266.

Jicarilla

Goddard, Pliny E. (1911). Jicarilla Apache texts . Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 8). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
Phone, Wilhelmina; Olson, Maureen; & Martinez, Matilda. (forthcoming). Abáachi mizaa łáo iłkee 'shijai: Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache . Axelrod, Melissa; Gómez de García, Jule; Lachler, Jordan; & Burke, Sean (Eds.). UNM Press. (Estimated publication date: summer 2006).
Phone, Wilma; & Torivio, Patricia. (1981). Jicarilla mizaa medaóołkai dáłáéé . Albuquerque: Native American Materials Development Center.
Tuttle, Siri G .; & Sandoval, Merton. (2002). Jicarilla Apache. Journal of the International Phonetic Association , 32 , 105-112.
Vicenti, Carson. (1981). Jicarilla Apache dictionary . Native American Materials Development Center, Ramah Navajo School Board.
Wilson, Alan, & Vigil Martine, Rita. (1996). Apache (Jicarilla) . Guilford, CT: Audio Forum. ISBN 0-88432-903-8 . (Includes book and cassette recording).

Lipan

Hoijer, Harry. (1975). The history and customs of the Lipan, as told by Augustina Zuazua. Linguistics , 161 , 5-38.

Navajo

Akmajian, Adrian; & Anderson, Steven. (1970). On the use of the fourth person in Navajo, or Navajo made harder. International Journal of American Linguistics , 36 (1), 1-8.
Creamer, Mary Helen. (1974). Ranking in Navajo nouns. Navajo Language Review , 1 , 29-38.
Faltz, Leonard M. (1998). The Navajo verb: A grammar for students and scholars . Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1901-7 (hb), ISBN 0-8263-1902-5 (pbk)
Frishberg, Nancy. (1972). Navajo object markers and the great chain of being. In J. Kimball (Ed.), Syntax and semantics (Vol. 1, pp. 259-266). New York: Seminar Press.
Hale, Kenneth L. (1973). A note on subject-object inversion in Navajo. In BB Kachru, RB Lees, Y. Malkiel, A. Pietrangeli, & S. Saporta (Eds.), Issuse in linguistics: Papers in honor of Henry and Renée Kahane (p. 300-309). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Hoijer, Harry. (1945). Navaho phonology . University of New Mexico publications in anthropology, (No. 1).
Hoijer, Harry. (1970). A Navajo Lexicon . University of California Publications in Linguistics (No. 78). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Kari, James. (1975). The disjunct boundary in the Navajo and Tanaina verb prefix complexes. International Journal of American Linguistics , 41 , 330-345.
Kari, James. (1976). Navajo verb prefix phonology. Garland Publishing Co.
McDonough, Joyce. (2003). The Navajo sound system . Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 1-4020-1351-5 (hb); ISBN 1-4020-1352-3 (pbk)
Reichard, Gladys A. (1951). Navaho grammar . Publications of the American Ethnological Society (Vol. 21). New York: JJ Augustin .
Sapir, Edward. (1932). Two Navaho puns. Language , 8 (3), 217-220.
Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry. (1942). Navaho texts . William Dwight Whitney series, Linguistic Society of America.
Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry. (1967). Phonology and morphology of the Navaho language . Berkeley: University of California Press.
Wall, C. Leon, & Morgan, William. (1994). Navajo-English dictionary . New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0247-4 . (Originally published [1958] by the US Dept. of the Interior, Branch of Education, Bureau of Indian Affairs).
Wilson, Garth A. (1995). Conversational Navajo workbook: An introductory course for non-native speakers . Blanding, UT: Conversational Navajo Publications. ISBN 0-938717-54-5 .
Witherspoon, Gary. (1971). Navajo categories of objects at rest. American Anthropologist , 73 , 110-127.
Witherspoon, Gary. (1977). Language and art in the Navajo universe . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08966-8 .
Young, Robert W. (2000). The Navajo verb system: An overview . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2172-0 (hb); ISBN 0-8263-2176-3 (pbk).
Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William, Sr. (1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary (rev. Ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1 .
Young, Robert W .; Morgan, William; & Midgette, Sally. (1992). Analytical Lexicon of Navajo . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1356-6 .

Western Apache

Basso, Keith H. (1979). Portraits of "the whiteman": Linguistic play and cultural symbols among the Western Apache . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29593-9 .
Basso, Keith H. (1990). Western Apache language and culture: Essays in linguistic anthropology . Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1323-6 .
Basso, Keith H. (1996). Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1724-3 .
Bray, Dorothy, & White Mountain Apache Tribe. (1998). Western Apache-English dictionary: A community-generated bilingual dictionary . Tempe, AZ: Bilingual Press. ISBN 0-927534-79-7 .
Durbin, Marshall. (1964). A componential analysis of the San Carlos dialect of Western Apache: A study based on the analysis of the phonology, morphophonics, and morphemics. (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York, Buffalo).
Goddard, Pliny E. (1919). San Carlos Apache texts . Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 3). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
Goddard, Pliny E. (1920). White Mountain Apache texts . Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 4). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
Goodwin, Grenville. (1939). Myth and tales of the White Mountain Apache . New York: American Folk-Lore Society (JJ Augustin). ISBN 0-8165-1451-8
Gordon, Matthew; Potter, Brian; Dawson, John; de Reuse, Willem; & Ladefoged, Peter. (2001). Phonetic structures of Western Apache. International Journal of American Linguistics , 67 (4), 415-481.
Greenfeld, Philip J. (1971). Playing card names in Western Apache. International Journal of American Linguistics , 37 (3), 195-196.
Greenfeld, Philip J. (1972). The phonological hierarchy of the White Mountain dialect of Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson).
Greenfeld, Philip J. (1978). Some special phonological characteristics of the White Mountain dialect of Apachean. Anthropological Linguistics , 20 (1), 150-157.
Greenfeld, Philip J. (1984). A treatment for stress in Apache. International Journal of American Linguistics , 50 (1), 105-111.
Hill, Faith. (1963). Some comparisons between the San Carlos and White Mountain dialects of Western Apache. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), Studies in the Athapaskan languages (pp. 149-154). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Mierau, Eric. (1963). Concerning Yavapai-Apache bilingualism. International Journal of American Linguistics , 29 (1), 1-3.
Potter, Brian. (1997). Wh / indefinites and the structure of the clause in Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.)
de Reuse, Willem J. (1993). Stylistic and dialectal variation in Western Apache phonology. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.
de Reuse, Willem J. (forthcoming). A practical grammar of the San Carlos Apache language .
White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1972). Western Apache dictionary . Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.
White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1983). New! keys to reading and writing Apache (rev. ed.). Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.

Web links

[1] Apaches work to save language ( Memento from November 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive )

[2] NAISHAN DENE 1 CREATIVITY WITH MONSTERS

[3] Tonto Apache and its position within Apachean

[4] MultiTree: Jicarilla Apache

[5] Ethnologue - Apache, Mescalero-Chiricahua