Lipan

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Residential areas of the Lipan
Today's reserves of the Western Apache (red), the Mescalero (including Chiricahua and Lipan) (green), the Jicarilla (purple), the Chiricahua (blue), the Kiowa Apache (Plains Apache) (including Lipan) (brown) and Diné (Navajo) (orange) in the American Southwest

The Lipan or Lipan Apache are a tribal group of the Apaches in the southwest of the United States and (formerly) in the northeast of Mexico , who once dominated the High Plains and the Southern Plains from the 16th to the middle of the 18th century , and count culturally - together with the Mescalero , Chiricahua , Jicarilla and Kiowa Apache (Plains Apache)  - to the Eastern Apache (English Eastern Apache ).

Their language, the Lipan, belongs - together with Jicarilla Apache (Abáachi or Abáachi mizaa) and the Plains Apache (Kiowa Apache) - to the eastern branch of the South Apache languages ​​of the Athapaskan language from the Na Dené language family .

The Lipan called themselves Tindi , Ndé or Indeh , which literally simply means "people"; They also referred to themselves as Hleh-pai Ndé or Lépai-Ndé ("The light gray people", pronounced: hleh-pandeh or klih-pandeh ), the only word pronounced by the Spaniards as hlepan or klihpan , which later became the historical tribal name when Lipan was created for this Apache group.

Tribal area

They originally lived in the southern High Plains (southwest Nebraska, west Kansas and Oklahoma , east New Mexico , the Texas Panhandle and the Llano Estacado ). Later, under the pressure of the Comanche and Ute invading the eastern Apacheria , and their Norteños allies ( Wichita , Tonkawa , Caddo , Hasinai , Tawakoni , Waco) , they evaded south and south-west into the mountains and later outskirts of the Great Plains. Between 1720 and 1750 they had withdrawn south of the Colorado River in central Texas, now penetrating into the Edwards Plateau in the south and in the southeast as far as San Antonio , Texas. After 1750 they had to leave the Edwards Plateau for the most part and now penetrated south to the Texas Coastal Bend of the Texan coast of the Gulf of Mexico . From 1751 onwards, a large part of the Texan Lipan moved south across the Rio Grande to relatives already living in northern Mexico and extended their tribal area along the Río Conchos south to the Nazas River in Chihuahua and Coahuila , including the Mapimi . Their tribal area in central and south Texas, which was rich in game, was called Ki-aah-hii ('Many Horses') because of the wealth of horses and livestock in the haciendas and ranchos of the Spaniards and the settlements of the Indians . They called their newly reclaimed areas in the semi-deserts, plateaus and mountains in Coahuila, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas (from Ta ma ho`lipam - 'where Lipan pray') Naa-ci-ká ('Circular House' ) between 1750 and 1770 ).

history

Early history

Today's scientists suspect that the Apaches parted at some point on their migration south. One group migrated on the west side of the Rocky Mountains in the American Southwest, while a second smaller group migrated south east of the mountains.

Because of this migration from the north and then east onto the plains, the Lipan call themselves Hleh-pai-Ndé or Lépai-Ndé ("The light gray people"). The name is made up of the word for light gray ( Lépai or kleh-pai ) and for "The People" ( Indeh or Ndé ). Like all Apaches, the Lipan see the earth as a circle, each interrupted by the four cardinal points, each symbolized by a color: the north (white), the east (black), the south (blue) and the west (yellow ). When the ancestors of the Lipan moved from the north to the east in Texas, they migrated from the white of the north to the black of the east, so to speak. If you mix a little black with white, light gray results - and that's how the Lipan became the "light gray people".

The ancestors of the Lipan probably belonged to the buffalo- hunting cross echoes that Francisco de Coronado encountered in the southern Great Plains in 1541 . They lived in tipis made of bison skin and used large dogs for their transport. In spring and autumn they organized extensive joint hunts and killed pronghorn , deer , bear and above all the bison. The smallest unit of the Lipan Society was the matrilocal extended family (gotah).

Ascent and climax (1600 to 1700)

Lipan warriors

The Spaniards had taught the Pueblo Indians to ride so that they could tend their herds of sheep and cattle, and in the 16th and 17th centuries involuntarily introduced the horse to the nomads who had previously wandered around on foot through the help of fleeing Pueblo.

The Apaches, including the Lipan, used their newfound mobility to enormously expand their radius of action. The horse enabled many eastern Apache groups ( Jicarilla , Mescalero , Lipan, etc.) to colonize the vastness of the southern Great Plains as semi-nomads. In the fertile river valleys of the Arkansas, Brazos, Colorado, Red River, they established seasonal settlements and practiced extensive agriculture in addition to collecting herbs and fruits. In the autumn, after the harvest, they gave up their settlements and went hunting for bison. This combination of agriculture and hunting meant the full use of the available resources in the plains.

Their advance on the Southern Plains meant that the Jumano trade network that existed in the 16th century was broken up by the Apaches and the powerful groups, later known as Tonkawa , had to leave the High Plains for South Texas. During the Pueblo uprising (1680–1690) against the Spaniards, the Apaches had completely wiped out the Pueblo Indians in Texas and almost wiped out some Pueblo peoples in New Mexico. After the Apaches had established themselves as successors to the Jumano in the Plains, they extended their forays even deeper into eastern Texas and Kansas. Now they used their greater mobility in raids against the sedentary farming peoples of the Pawnee , Wichita , Caddo , Kansa and others. a. out. In addition, they soon undertook regular slave hunts and supplied the Spanish and French slave markets in New Mexico and Louisiana with their Indian captives ( Pawnee was then a synonym for Indian slave ).

The Spanish soon called the areas between the Colorado in Arizona to the Brazos and Red Rivers in eastern Texas, from the Dismal River in southern Nebraska to central Texas in the south, Gran Apacheria .

To protect against the predatory Lipan and other Plains Apaches, the Spaniards set up an extensive system of presidios and fortified settlements along the foothills of the Gran Apacheria and formed defensive alliances with the settled peoples such as the Pueblo, Jumano, Caddo, Wichita and others.

Between 1650 and 1700 the eastern Apache groups were at the height of their power, were enemies of every tribe and had no allies. They were also called the best archers among the Indians.

Displacement and Decline on the Southern Plains (1700-1790)

From the year 1700 everything should change - and this to the detriment of the Lipan and other eastern Apache groups.

Due to the frequent attacks and counter-attacks between Apaches and other tribes and the wilderness of runaway horses (mustangs), more and more tribes were mounted ( Shoshone , Absarokee , Blackfoot , Ute , Comanche and others) and now moved to the plains in search of still more horses and a better life. In addition, armed tribes (for example Cree and Chippewa ) in search of new settlement areas drove settled, unarmed tribes (for example Lakota , Nakota , Cheyenne and Arapaho ) into the plains.

Around 1700 there were the first reports of a new power on the Southern Plains - and of massacres and displacement of Apache groups in Nebraska, Kansas and Oklahoma. In 1704 the first fleeing Plains Apaches appeared in New Mexico among the Spanish and asked to be allowed to settle. The aggressors were Shoshone groups from the mountains along with relatives Ute who wanted to force access to the Spanish markets in New Mexico and Texas and the huge herds of mustangs and bison of the Plains. Their only enemies to be taken seriously were not the Spaniards or the sedentary farming tribes, but the agriculture, bison hunting and predatory Apaches who dominated the plains.

Now everything turned against the eastern Plains Apaches, which was originally an advantage for them - their seasonal agriculture forced them to settle for months while the fields were being tilled and their lust for war and robbery had made them an enemy of everyone . Due to their seasonal settlements (and thus their "findability") and their isolation among the tribes, they were easy victims for the fast, warlike, brutal nomads who also formed alliances with their enemies, the Caddo, Wichita, Ute, Tonkawa and others and established themselves as their protective power against the Apaches. In addition, the Apaches had never developed into exceptional riders and did not know about horse breeding (the French reported around 1750, dismayed, that Apaches rode pregnant mares and thus premature births often occurred). In addition, the individual Apache groups had alienated one another, did not stand by one another and sometimes even fought one another.

Thus the Apaches were not armed against the war tactics of the mounted Shoshone, which they called Idahi (snakes). More and more bands ( English “ tribal groups ”) of the Shoshone warriors (the Ute later called them Komantcia “those who always fight against us”, from which the Spanish made Comanche ) invaded the Gran Apacheria and attacked widely spaced Apache villages and robbed all of the horses so that the Apaches could not pursue them.

These constant attacks between individual groups of the Comanche and Apaches grew into the longest, bloodiest, cruelest and most bitter war between Indian peoples, whole groups of the Apaches on the southern plains were wiped out by the Comanche. Thousands of Comanche now crossed the Arkansas and after the almost complete displacement of the Apaches established a new equilibrium on the plains. Every Comanche was the declared enemy of every Apache and vice versa.

In 1724 the Jicarilla (Spanish basket weavers ) were defeated by the Comanche, almost all of their eastern groups were exterminated, they then left their area in the plains of Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas and sought refuge in the mountains of New Mexico and southern Colorado . The Jicarilla reported to the Spaniards that they no longer had any chiefs, almost no warriors and no women .

The Mescalero groups retreated into the deserts and mountains between Rio Grande and Rio Pecos in New Mexico, the Trans-Pecos in southwest Texas and crossed the Rio Grande to Mexico into the Mapimi (desert) (Bolsón de Mápimi) in Chihuahua .

Remnants of the eastern Apache groups joined together under a great chief Ipa (Ipa`Nde = Ipas people , Spanish Lipanes , Comanche: Nipan ) and fought in a desperate nine-day battle on the Red River against the Idahi - and were crushed. (Today it is believed that this is a (Spanish?) Legend that aims to depict and explain a decades-long conflict between the Comanche and Apaches in a "great, decisive" battle.)

From around 1740 a large part of the Gran Apacheria east of the Rocky Mountains had become Comancheria (the dominion of the Comanche) - Comanche roamed from the Arkansas River to central Texas and from the Pecos River in the west to the Cross Timbers in the east. Once powerful groups of the Eastern Apaches had largely been decimated, broken up, enslaved and sold by the Comanche and their allies (with the active support of the Spanish and French) or had fled. Paloma (Spanish pigeons ), Carlana, Faraone (Spanish pharaohs ), Perillo, Penxaye, Trementina, Limita, Quartelejo, Calchufine, Cuampe and other tribes were exterminated, absorbed by other groups and sometimes formed new ones.

The shattered Lipan first collected south of the Colorado River in the Edwards Plateau and in the river valleys of the San Saba, Guadelupe, Llano and the upper reaches of the Nueces in central and southeast Texas - mostly semi-deserts and deserts. On their flight, the Lipan displaced the once powerful Tonkawa and the remains of the Jumano and Coahuiltec groups from central Texas. The Lipan became nomads, hunters and gatherers again and gave up farming.

In 1786 the Spaniards forced the Comanche and their allies (Wichita, Tonkawa, Caddo, etc.) together with the Diné , Ute, Pueblo into an alliance against the Apaches - equipped with Spanish logistics, Spanish weapons, Spanish maps, access to Spanish markets and gifts, the Comanche relentlessly hunted every Apache they could find.

In bitter fighting between 1787 and 1789, the Spaniards, with the active support of Tarahumara and Comanche, drove the southernmost groups of the Mescalero from the Bolson de Mápimi north to the Plains of Texas, right into the arms of waiting Comanche who did the dirty work for the Spaniards done. After this heavy defeat, the remnants of the southern Mescalero were forced into an alliance against their tribal and close allies, the Lipan.

In 1790, with the help of Mescalero and Tonkawa scouts and the hated Idahi, the Spaniards succeeded in destroying the Lipan in the Uvalde Canyon . The former power and importance of the Lipan on the Southern Plains of Texas was now gone forever. In addition, by several smallpox - epidemics weakened, beset on all sides by its Spanish and Indian enemies, the Lipan for about 10 years behaved peacefully and signed deals with Spaniards and neighboring tribes.

The Lipan now finally had to vacate the Edwards Plateau (now the area of ​​the Penateka Comanche) and were determined by the Spaniards (and later the Americans) from 1780 onwards with regard to their geographical position in relation to the Rio Grande (from the Lipan Kuné tsé or Tú sis - "Big Water" "Big River") divided into two loose groupings, which also differ culturally:

The Lipanes de Arriba or Upper Lipan ("Upper Lipan", sometimes also Lipanes del Norte - "Northern Lipan" or Western Lipan - "Western Lipan"), which call themselves Twid Ndé or Tú'é'diné Ndé ("No Water People "," Tough People of the Desert ") were a loose grouping of several bands who roamed eastward on the plains and semi-deserts of central Texas along the Upper Colorado River and its tributaries - the Llano River and Concho River southwest in the Trans-Pecos and in the Big-Bend in West Texas to west of the lower Pecos River in New Mexico and on both sides of the Rio Grande in Coahuila . Strengthened by the influx of dispersed Lipanes de Abajo ( Lower Lipan or Eastern Lipan ), some of their bands moved further south into Coahuila and southwest into the high plateau of the Bolsón de Mapimí in Chihuahua (in the roaming areas of the southern Mescalero bands). They were often allied with Natagés, Lipiyánes and Mescalero against the tribes of the Southern Plains as well as the Spaniards, so that individual bands could assert themselves on the Southern Plains, among them especially the Kó'l kukä'ⁿ ( Cuelcahen Ndé - "Tall Grass People" , "Prairie Men", later called Llaneros or Lipanes Llaneros ) and the Shá´i ándé ("Northern People").

The Lipanes de Abajo or Lower Lipan ("Lower Lipan", sometimes Lipanes del Sur - "Southern Lipan" or Eastern Lipan - "Eastern Lipan"), which call themselves Tu'tssn Ndé / Tú sis Ndé or Kúne tsá / Konitsaii Ndé ("Big Water People", "Great Water People"), roamed from the bison hunting grounds on the San Saba River and Llano River westward to the Frio River and upper Nueces River . Now some bands moved along the lower Guadalupe River even deeper into the southeast of Texas to the Sand Plains, Coastal Plains and Brush Land to the Gulf Coast in southeast Texas. They migrated on both sides of the lower Rio Grande (“Big Water”) and also had areas of the Gulf coast as well as the deserts, semi-deserts and plateaus in northeast Mexico, in today's Nuevo León and Tamaulipas ( Ta ma ho`lipam - “where Lipan pray "). There they allied themselves with the Tonkawa, their former enemies. From around 1770 onwards, through the mediation of French settlers and traders - who were hostile to the Spaniards - they established a barter with several groups of the once hostile western Atakapa ( Akokisa , the actual Atakapa and the Bidai ). The Lower Lipan robbed cattle, horses and people (Indians and Spaniards) and received French rifles and ammunition from the named tribes in return, which they in turn successfully used against the Spaniards and Comanche.

The Lipanes de Arriba were a mixture of peoples of scattered Lipanes de Abajo , Coahuiltec groups that had merged into the Lipan, and Julimes (later called Carrizos , the Lipan called them "Enemy Camped About Water"), Jumanos and Sumas . The Mescalero therefore did not see them as "real" Apache, as they had slight dialect modifications in their language and had adopted many of the traditions and cultural techniques of the northeastern Mexican tribes.

The Lipan and Mescalero gangs were slow to recover from the shock of defeat and the loss of one of their best hunting grounds. Their partial annihilation and displacement from the southern plains to the south to the Spanish settlements did not solve the Apache problem - it worsened from year to year, since the warlike Lipan and Mescalero, in order not to starve (the bison hunt was the Apache only possible sporadically and in large groups, since these areas now belonged to the Comancheria), now invading more and more deeply into the Spanish areas, plundering and murdering, spared neither Spanish nor Indian settlements. From approx. 1798/99 the raids and war expeditions of the Apaches reached an unprecedented brutality and frequency.

Changing alliances (1790 to 1845)

In the years that followed, the Lipan behaved ambiguously towards the Spaniards: in Texas they met the Spaniards peacefully, often offering themselves as scouts and warriors when it came to their mortal enemies, the hated Idahi . At the same time, the groups of the Lipan and other Apaches, now roaming freely and unrestricted in northern Mexico, acquired the reputation of feared and hated warriors through ruthless plundering of Spanish and Indian settlements.

The independence of Mexico in 1821 meant lawlessness for the Mexican border areas, fewer soldiers, fewer Spanish counter-attacks, helplessness of the Mexican rural population and - the heaviest Indian looting for decades, especially Lipan, Comanche, Kiowa made their reputation as terrible warriors and robbers all honors.

During the independence of Texas and the eventual annexation of Texas into the United States, the Lipan were important warlike raiders in the border area and repeatedly served the Texans and Americans as loyal scouts against rambling Comanche and Kiowa groups.

Downfall (1845 to 1881)

The good relationship between Lipan and the Americans changed fundamentally with the Mexican-American War , when all areas of Mexico north of the Rio Grande and Gila fell to the USA and settlers and ranchers increasingly invaded Lipan territory. In addition, the United States suddenly demanded that the Lipan cease their predatory raids against Mexicans and Indian tribes and release all their white and Indian prisoners.

In order to defend their homeland, stop the influx of Americans, and feeling abandoned by the American army, the Lipan attacked and transformed large parts of the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande and central Texas to the Texas coast in a war zone.

At the end of the American Civil War , the Lipan were defeated in a great battle by the Americans and finally withdrew from Texas to the mountains of Chihuahua and Coahuila in Mexico. From there they undertook merciless raids with the last free groups of the Mescalero and Kickapoo into Texas, disappeared again across the border to the safety of their Mexican bases and sold their booty on Mexican markets (see also: John York (1800–1848)).

In 1873, Mackenzie , the commander of the Texan border, made an illegal incursion into Mexico, tracked down the villages of the safe Lipan, destroyed them and captured most of the women and children, whom he sold on to Mexicans.

After the final overthrow of their old enemies, the Comanche and Kiowa, in 1875, groups of the Mescalero and Lipan again wandered around in the Southern Plains, their former home, for a few years (1875 to 1881) and carried out the last raids by Indians in Texas in 1881 . The northern group of the Lipan had already united with the Mescalero around 1860 and was absorbed into them.

Other Lipan managed to hide from the Mexicans for a long time. A group of 19 Lipan did not return until 1903 and was accepted into the Mescalero Reservation in New Mexico. It is not known whether any of them remained in Mexico. A small third group made it to Oklahoma and was accepted into the common reservation of the Kiowa, Comanches and Apaches. Most of these Lipan also mixed with members of other tribes.

The Lipan had ceased to exist as a separate ethnic group - they were extinguished. Almost 350 years of fighting against Spanish, Mexican, American and Indian enemies had come to an end.

Society and structure

Socio-political organization

The Lipan initially formed a tribal unit, which soon identified themselves as Hleh-pai Ndé , but during their invasion of the plains (1650 to 1750) they split into two large tribal groups (divisions), the Forest Lipan (own names: Chishį́į́hį́į́ , Tcici , Tcicihi) , 'People of the Forest') and the Plains Lipan (proper name Golgahį́į́ , Kó'l kukä'ⁿ 'Prairie Men' - 'People of the plains').

After they had been largely ousted from the Southern Plains by the Comanche and their allies, the Norteños , around 1750 , the Lipan could no longer maintain this political organization. Due to the ongoing conflict with the Comanche and their allies, the Lipan split into several groups (English bands ), as smaller units offered better protection from the enemy and enabled the Lipan to escape them (1750 to 1850). As with the neighboring Mescalero Apache , these groups are made up of several local groups , which are made up of several related matrilinear and matrilocal gotahs , extended families . These units, known as bands , were divided by the Spaniards (and later Americans) from 1780 onwards in terms of their geographical position in relation to the Rio Grande into two loose groupings, which also differed culturally:

  • Lipanes de Arriba or Upper Lipan ('Upper Lipan', sometimes also called Lipanes del Norte ('Northern Lipan') or Western Lipan ('Western Lipan') lived on the plains and semi-deserts of central Texas along the Upper Colorado River and its tributaries southwest in Texas west of the Pecos River and on both sides of the Rio Grande in Coahuila and in the Bolsón de Mapimí in Chihuahua in northern Mexico, successor to the Golgahį́į́ ('Plains Lipan'))
  • Lipanes de Abajo or Lower Lipan ('Lower Lipan', sometimes also called Lipanes del Sur ('Southern Lipan') or Eastern Lipan ('Eastern Lipan'), lived mostly only in the outskirts of the Southern Plains and the Gulf Coast Plains in the southeast of Texas as well as in the northeast of Mexico, in today's states Nuevo León and Tamaulipas , their area mostly comprised deserts, semi-deserts and mountains, successors of the Chishį́į́hį́į́ ('Forest Lipan')).

The related and often allied Mescalero living to the west and south-west also differentiated between two groups within the Lipan, again based on the location of their tribal areas in relation to the Rio Grande, which, as mentioned above, also differed culturally:

  • Tuetinini / Tú'é'dinénde ("No Water People", "Tough People of the Desert", called by the Lipan Twid Ndé or Tú'é'diné Ndé , as they mostly lived in deserts, semi-deserts and mountainous plateaus, are identical with the Lipanes de Arriba )
  • Tuintsundé / Túntsande ("Big Water People", "Great Water People", called by the Lipan Tu'tssn Ndé / Tú sis Ndé or Kúne tsá / Konitsaii Ndé ) lived on both sides of the Rio Grande ("Big Water") in the Plains and Deserts of the Gulf Coast Plain in southeast Texas and northeast Mexico are identical to the Lipanes de Abajo )

The Spanish associated the following groups with the Lipan:

  • Ypandes ( Ypandis, Ipandes, Ipandi, Lipanes, Lipanos, Lipaines, Lapane, Lipanis, Lipan , once roamed from the Pecos River in eastern New Mexico to the Upper Colorado River , San Saba River, and Llano River in central Texas, including the Edwards Plateaus southeast to the Gulf of Mexico were close allies of the Natagés , so it seems certain that they formed the tribal group of the Plains Lipan ( Golgahį́į́, Kó'l kukä'ⁿ - 'people of the plains'), not to be confused with the Lipiyánes or Le Panis ( French for: Pawnee ). They were officially mentioned for the first time in 1718 as Apache living directly adjacent to the newly built missionary settlement of San Antonio, Texas.)
  • Pelones ('the hairless, hairless', lived far from San Antonio and thus far northeast of the Ypandes (Plains Lipan) along the Red River of the South in northern Texas, formed the tribal group of the Forest Lipan ( Chishį́į́hį́į́ , Tcici , Tcicihi -' Volk des Waldes'), although they had more than the Ypandes and Natagés combined with about 800 warriors , they are described as less warlike, because they had fewer horses than the Ypandes (Plains Lipan), counted an estimated 1,600 to 2,400 Tribal members, after 1760 the name Pelones was never used again for any Apache group in Texas, the Pelones (Forest Lipan) fled from the Comanche to the south and southwest, but did not join the Ypandes (Plains Lipan) tribal group - could so keep their separate identity, so that in 1935 the Lipan informants told the astonished ethnologist Morris E. Opler that their tribal name reads Chishį́į́hį́į́ - 'people of the forest'.)
  • Natagés (pronounced 'Na-tah-hay', derived from Nadahéndé - 'Mescal people', also: Natagees , Apaches del Natafé , Yabipais Natagé , Natageses , Natajes , once a large important eastern Apache group, from which the Salinero and Mescalero, ancestors of the Mescalero Apache , who formed at the end of the 18th century and who held a kind of hegemony over some western Lipan gangs in the 18th century, were conquered by the Spaniards and the Apache because of their bravery and their influence on neighboring Apache- Groups often referred to as true, real Apache )
  • Lipiyánes (also Lipiyán , Lipillanes , an alliance of Lipan as well as Nadahéndé and Guhlkahéndé of the Mescalero Apache in the 18th century under the leadership of the chief Picax-Ande-Ins-Tinsle (Strong Arm) to oppose the Comanche on the southern plains claim)
  • Llaneros , sometimes also Lipanes Llaneros , ('Inhabitants of the Plains'), 'Plains Lipan', also Cuelcajen-ne , lived in the southern plains and deserts between the Pecos River and the Colorado River and were divided into three large groups - the Natagés , Lipiyánes and Llaneros - the Spaniards also used this name to refer to several different ethnic groups who seasonally hunted buffalo on the southern plains, also used for Apache groups in eastern New Mexico and western Texas (see Jicarilla Apache and Mescalero Apache, but later mostly used for the powerful and large Lipan group of the Kó'l kukä'ⁿ ( Cuelcahen Ndé - 'Tall Grass People', 'Prairie Men'))

Recurring epidemics ( smallpox , cholera ), wars against Spaniards, Mexicans and Indian enemies (especially Comanche) as well as the aggressive advance of the Americans in Texas resulted in the groups of the Lipan being split up into several local units, and the Lipan off At that time they were only organized politically in local groups (1850 to 1900).

Groups of the Lipan

Lipanes de Arriba ( Upper Lipan - "Upper Lipan", also Western Lipan - "Western Lipan"), successor to the Golgahį́į́ ("Plains Lipan")

  • Ndáwe qóhä , Ndáwe qóhäⁿ , Ndáwe ɣóhäⁿ ('Fire People', 'Camp Circle People', lived southwest of Fort Griffin, along the Colorado River and its tributaries, the San Saba River and Llano River to the upper Nueces River and along the Frio River and Atascosa River in Texas)
  • Tchó'kanä , Tchóⁿkanäⁿ ('Pulverizing People', 'Rubbing People', later merged with the Tcha shka-ózhäye , lived west of Fort Griffin, Texas, which was on the Clear Fork of the Brazos River , along the upper Colorado River to the west of the Rio Grande to Mexico, wiped out around 1884)
  • Tchaⁿshka ózhäyeⁿ ('Little Breech-clout People', lived along the eastern bank of the Pecos River in Texas, were close allies of the Nadahéndé group of the Mescalero)
  • Tindi Ndé, Tú'e Ndé ('People of the Mountains') or Tüzhä'ⁿ, Täzhä'ⁿ ('Uplanders') (lived along the upper Rio Grande, in southern New Mexico and in northern Mexico, from 1850 they lived in narrow spaces Contact with the Mescalero)
  • Kó'l kukä'ⁿ , Kó´l Kahäⁿ , Cuelcahen Ndé ('Tall Grass People', 'High Grass People', 'Prairie Men' lived on the plains in central Texas along the upper Colorado River and its tributaries southwest to the Pecos River, later referred to as Llaneros or Lipanes Llaneros )
  • Te'l kóndahä , Te'l kóndahäⁿ ('Wild Goose People', lived west of Fort Griffin in Texas, along the upper Colorado River and its tributaries, were known and feared as warriors)
  • Shá i'a Nde, Shá'i'ánde, Nde 'Shini, Shä-äⁿ (' Northern People ', northern group of the Lipan, some family contacts to the Kiowa-Apache , lived on the other side of the Dapeshte (Arkansas) River , had to move with 300 people to the Washita Agency in Oklahoma in 1884)
  • Tsés tsem'bai ('Heads of Wolves People', 'Bodies of Men People', mostly roamed between the upper Brazos River and the Colorado River in central Texas, but often migrated further west)
  • Tsésh ke shéndé , Tséc kecénde ('Painted Wood People', may originally have lived along the upper Brazos River, later extinguished near Laván, Coahuila, around 1884)
  • Twid Ndé , Tú'é'diné Ndé ('Tough People of the Desert', 'No Water People', were so named because they often lived only on water in the desert, in small rock holes in the mountains or in yucca plants was saved, moved northwards from the Gulf Coastal Plains into the mountains and deserts between the Rio Grande and Rio Pecos, near the confluence of the two, there they often entered into mixed marriages with neighboring groups of the Mescalero and later merged as Tuetinini with the Mescalero, the Tú sis Ndé ('Big Water People') who tried to claim their ancient territory along the Gulf Coast are sometimes quite critical of the Twid Ndé because of their apostasy and mixing with the Mescalero and therefore classify them as a Mescalero or partially Mescalero- Group)
  • Zit'is'ti Nde , Tséghát'ahén Nde , Tas steé be glui Ndé ('Rock Tied to Head People', lived and migrated in the deserts and semi-deserts near today's Del Rio in Texas and Piedras Negras in northeast Coahuila between the territories of the Tu'tssn Ndé / Konitsaii Ndé ("Big Water People") and the Twid Ndé / Tú'é'diné Ndé ("Tough People of the Desert", "No Water People"), carried like the neighboring Mescalero a red headscarf that was wrapped in a turban , under which they tucked a flat stone on each side)
  • Bi'uhit Ndé , Buii gl un Ndé ('Many Necklaces People', wore a lot of necklaces, were known for taking great care of their appearance, lived in the deserts and high plateaus of New Mexico and Northern Mexico)
  • Zuá Zuá Ndé ('People of the Lava Beds', lived in the volcanic lava areas in eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas)

Lipanes de Abajo ("Lower Lipan" - "Lower Lipan", also Eastern Lipan - "Eastern Lipan"), successor to the Chishį́į́hį́į́ ("Forest Lipan")

  • Tséral tuétahä , Tséral tuétahäⁿ ('Red Hair People', later merged with the Tche shä and Tsél tátli dshä , lived south of the Nueces River in Texas, wiped out around 1884)
  • Tche shä , Tche shäⁿ ('Sun Otter People', migrated from San Antonio , Texas, all the way south to the Rio Grande )
  • Tsél tátli dshä , Tsél tátli dshäⁿ ('People of the Green Mountain', later merged with the Kóke metcheskó lähä , migrated east of the Rio Grande along the lower Guadelupe River and Nueces River in southern Texas, went into the Kóke metcheskó lähäⁿ )
  • Kóke metcheskó lähä , Kóke metcheskó lähäⁿ ('High-Beaked Moccasin People', lived south of San Antonio to Mexico)
  • Tu'tssn Ndé , Tùn Tsa Ndé , Tú sis Ndé , Kúne tsá , Konitsaii Ndé ('Big Water People', 'Great Water People', originally a group of the Natage, lived in the Gulf Coastal Plains on both sides of the Rio Grande as far as Coahuila , from 1750 onwards most of the Rio Grande crossed into Mexico, so that their tribal area, called Konitsąąįį gokíyaa ('Big Water People Country'), extended deep into Coahuila, mostly settled along the Rio Escondido and Rio San Rodrigo , Magoosh's Local group of the Tú sis Ndé later merged with the Mescalero as Tuintsunde )
  • Ha'didla 'Ndé , Goschish Ndé (' Lightning Storm People ', roamed from the lower Rio Grande Valley in South Texas to Tamaulipas in Mexico, today their descendants live in the Lower Rio Grande River area (El Calaboz Rancheria))

In addition, there were (and are) the following groups:

  • Jumano Ndé , Suma Ndé ( Jumano Apache - 'Red Mud Painted People'), lived in the area of ​​the middle and lower reaches (Lower and Middle) of the Rio Grande River, Nueces River, Frio River and the Conchos River, today their descendants live in the Middle-Upper Rio Grande River Area, West Texas (El Polvo (Redford), El Mesquite, El Conejo, El Mulato Chihuahua)
  • Indantųhé Ndé , Nakaiyé Ndé ('Mexican Clan People', descendants of Mexican settlers who joined Lipan Apache when they sought refuge from the U.S. Army in Mexico)

Way of life

The Lipan developed survival techniques to go undetected in the desolate wilderness of northern Mexico. Lipan scouts were able to read tracks on any surface. They camouflaged themselves with leaves, dirt and ashes so that they could not be distinguished from the landscape and that animals could not smell them.

They were excellent archers. So that the long hair didn't get in the way, it was cut off on the left side of the head, while it hung freely on the right. They transferred the skill of hunting to combat and were feared and respected as warriors. In many parts, the Lipan culture corresponds to the Plains culture. They lived in teepees made of buffalo skin, but they used in warmer weather, the Wickiup the Apaches of branches and leaves. They wore leather clothes adorned with pearls and leather was also the material for moccasins, bags and pouches.

Demographics

Around 1700 it was estimated that there were around 6,000 Lipan Apache, whereby it must be taken into account that 25% of these were men and the rest were women (35%) and children (40%), so they could make around 1,500 warriors. After hard battles against the Spaniards and the Comanche, however, around 1750 it was believed that there were only around 3,000 to 4,000 Lipan Apache with around 750 to 1,000 warriors. After severe smallpox epidemics and an alliance between the Spaniards with the Comanche and other south-western tribes aimed at the extermination of the Lipan Apache, which led to several severe defeats on the part of the Lipan Apache, these were estimated at around 2,000 (approx. 500 warriors), in 1845 at approx. 1,500 (approx. 375 warriors), in 1865 approx. 350 (approx. 90 warriors), and in 1913 a total of 35 tribal members.

In 1981, out of a population of around 100, two or three spoke their mother tongue.

Todays situation

The dispersed groups of the Lipan joined various neighboring Apache groups or other Indian tribes because at the time of their final military defeat they were no longer able to act together as a larger group. Today the descendants of the Lipan belong to various federally and state recognized tribes (tribes recognized at the federal level):

Federally recognized tribes

United States - New Mexico

  • Mescalero Apache Tribe
The Mescalero Apache Reservation is located in south-central New Mexico, is approximately 1,864 km² in size and is at an altitude of approximately 1,600 m to 3,650 m above sea level. The high mountains are part of the Sacramento Mountains , with the highest mountain - Sierra Blanca Peak (3,652 m) - which is sacred to the Mescalero Apache. The Mescalero Apache Tribe today officially consists of three separate groups, which represent the following formerly independent tribes: the Mescalero Apache , the Chiricahua Apache and the Lipan Apache .
The Twid Ndé ( Tú'é'diné Ndé - 'No Water People', 'Tough People of the Desert') of the Lipan Apache had already allied themselves with the Mescalero before the reservation time and merged with the Mescalero around 1850 as Tuetinini . Chief Magoosh's local group of the Tu'tssn Ndé ( Tú sis Ndé , Kúne tsá - 'Big Water People', 'Great Water People') also sought refuge with the Mescalero around 1850, in 1904 Chief Venego fled with his local group from Zaragoza, Mexico, both groups merged with the Mescalero to form the Tuintsunde .
In 1913 (August 1912 the POW status was revoked) 187 Fort Sill Apache Chiricahua ( Chokonen , Chihenne , Bedonkohe and Nednhi ) moved to the Mescalero reservation in New Mexico to the Mescalero Apache. While the Mescalero had previously entered into some mixed marriages with Chihenne and Lipan, they initially had a tense relationship with the Chokonen, Bedonkohe and Nednhi. In the course of time, however, as a result of living together in a small space, more and more friendly and familiar contacts between the various groups developed and strong and close relationships developed among each other. Finally, in 1964, all Apache in the reserve, regardless of their origin, were recognized as Mescalero.
The tribe operates the Ski Apache ski resort as well as the neighboring hotel and casino for tourist traffic - the Inn of the Mountain Gods Resort and Casino . They also established a cultural center, the Cultural Museum, near their administrative center in Mescalero, New Mexico . The tribe also has a larger museum in Dog Canyon south of Alamogordo, New Mexico. In 2000 there were 3,156 tribal members according to the census, today approx. 3,979.

United States - Oklahoma

  • Apache Tribe of Oklahoma
The Apache Tribe of Oklahoma is made up of descendants of the Kiowa Apache and the once hostile Lipan Apache who joined them in 1874 while fleeing the US Army. In 1913, however, most of the Lipan Apache moved to New Mexico, to the Mescalero Apache Reservation, to join the Lipan who were already living there. A minority stayed with the Kiowa Apache and has been part of the tribe ever since.
The administrative and tribal center is located in Anadarko , Caddo County , Oklahoma. Today's reservation area includes parts of Caddo, Comanche , Cotton , Grady , Jefferson , Kiowa, and Stephens Counties in Oklahoma. Members of the tribe need a 1/8 blood quantum , ie a minimum number of ancestors or a corresponding “blood percentage” with Kiowa-Apache ancestors, in order to be accepted into the tribe. In 2000 there were 1,802 tribe members, in 2011 there were 2,263 Kiowa Apache.
  • Tonkawa Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma
Today's Tonkawa Tribe of Oklahoma consists of survivors of the Tonkawa (also Titska Watitch or Tickanwatic) as well as some descendants of the Lipan Apache , who lived with the Tonkawa, their allies, from 1884.
In the fall of 1855, the Tonkawa were assigned two small reservations on the Clear Fork Brazos River along with Caddo , Kichai (also Keechi or Kitsai) , Waco , Tawakoni and Penateka-Comanche .
Despite their alliance with the Texas Rangers against the hostile Southern Plains tribes, Texans raided the reservations, so that in 1857 the Tonkawa were brought to Fort Cobb on the Washita River in Indian Territory . When the Tonkawa were working as scouts for the US Army in 1859, American settlers again attacked their reservation, so that about 300 Tonkawa were again relocated to the Wichita reservation near Anadarko .
In revenge for their scouting activities, they were victims of the so-called Tonkawa Massacre (23-24 October 1862) by a war troop of allied tribes, which included around 137 men, women and children, including Chief Plácido ( Ha-shu-ka- na - 'You can't kill him'). There are different accounts of the tribes who committed the Tonkawa massacre - Caddo , Shawnee , Lenni Lenape , Osage , Comanche , Kiowa and Seminoles are mentioned in different accounts.
The survivors were eventually resettled with Lipan Apache at Fort Griffin, Texas, to protect them from total annihilation. In 1884, 92 tribe members, including the Lipan Apache, were temporarily relocated to the Sauk Fox Agency and then to Fort Oakland in the former Nez Percé Reserve, Oklahoma, in the spring of 1885 . In 1908 there were only 48 tribe members, including some Lipan Apache who were married in.
This reservation in Kay County in northern Oklahoma covers approx. 5.00 km², the tribal administration is located on the west bank of the Chikaskia River, approx. 4.00 km southeast of Tonkawa , approx. 19.30 km west of Ponca City and approx. 160 , 90 km north of Oklahoma City , is now home to approximately 600 tribesmen.
In addition to several stores, the tribe also operates two casinos - the Tonkawa Indian Casino in Tonkawa, Oklahoma and the Native Lights Casino in Newkirk, Oklahoma. Today the Tonkawa language is extinct, and Apache is no longer spoken by the members. Most of the Tonkawa dances and chants have been lost. Most of the tonkawa on the reservation live below the poverty line.

State recognized tribes

United States - Texas

  • Lipan Apache Tribe of Texas

United States - Louisiana

  • Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb
The Choctaw-Apache Community of Ebarb (also Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb ) is located in western Sabine Parish in northwest Louisiana on the border with Texas and includes the communities of Converse, Noble, Zwolle, Ebarb, Blue Lake, and in its traditional territory Grady Hill. Officially recognized by the state in 1978 ( state Recognized ), he is now the second largest tribe in the state of Louisiana. Historically, the tribe members are descendants of Lipan Apache slaves who were sold in the Natchitoches and Los Adaes markets, as well as Choctaw (also Chahta) who settled here around 1800 in search of better new hunting grounds, but joined in the 1820s this still Choctaw, who fled from the Muskogee (also Creek) . In addition, they have many ancestors among the Adais who previously lived here . Some survivors of the Bi`uhit Ndé / Buii gl un Ndé ('Many Necklaces People') of the Lipan Apache were resettled in the Choctaw-Apache community.

Other tribes and groups

The following tribes and groups are neither state recognized nor federally recognized tribes , i.e. that is, they are not recognized as a tribe by any state or federal level.

United States - Texas

  • Lipan Apache Band of Texas
The Lipan Apache Band of Texas are descendants of the Kó'l kukä'ⁿ / Kó´l Kahäⁿ (also Cuelcahen Ndé - 'Tall Grass People', 'High Grass People'), Twid Ndé / Tú'é'diné Ndé ('Tough People of the Desert ',' No Water People '), Tú sis Ndé / Kû'ne tsá / Konitsaaíí Ndé (' Big Water People ',' Great Water People '), Tséghát'ahén Nde / Tas steé be glui Ndé (' Rock Tied to Head People '), Bi`uhit Ndé / Buii gl un Ndé (' Many Necklaces People ') and Zuá Zuá Ndé (' People of the Lava Beds') with around 745 tribe members today. Most members, however, descend from the once powerful Konitsaaíí Ndé and Cúelcahén Ndé .
  • Tu 'Tssn Nde Band of the Lipan Apache Nation of Texas
The Tu 'Tssn Nde Band of the Lipan Apache Nation of Texas are descendants of the Tu'tssn Ndé ( Tùn Tsa Ndé , Tú sis Ndé , Kúne tsá , Konitsaii Ndé -' Big Water People ',' Great Water People ') who once in the Gulf Coastal Plains as well as both sides of the Rio Grande to northern Coahuila , in 1765 most of them left Texas and moved to northern Mexico, Chief Magoosh 'local group of Tu' sis Nde later merged with the Mescalero as Tuintsunde .

Personalities / chiefs

  • Bigotes ('the bearded one', mid-18th century, he left Texas in 1751 and led the Kuné tsa over the Rio Grande to Coahuila. Since then they have lived along the Rio Escondido and Rio San Rodrigo in Coahuila)
  • Poca Ropa ('few or scant clothes' -' few or poor clothes', approx. 1750 – approx. † 1790, chief of the Tcha shka-ó'zhäye ('Little Breech-clout People' - 'people, with small loincloths or little clothes') along the Lower Rio Pecos)
  • Cavezon ('Big Head', approx.? - approx. † 1780, chief of the Ndáwe qóhä , a powerful group that wandered from the Rio Saba to the Upper Rio Nueces)
  • Casimiro (18th century, gang chief in South Texas, probably the Ha'didla'Ndé )
  • Yolcna Pocarropa (approx. 1820 - approx. †?, Chief of several local groups of the Tcha shka-ó´zhäye in West Texas, in 1830 he led them across the Rio Grande to Tamaulipas in Mexico, downstream from Laredo)
  • Cuelgas de Castro ( Cuelga de Castro , approx. 1792 - approx. † 1844, chief of the Tche shä group in the San Antonio area to the south of the Rio Grande in Tamaulipas, he followed his father, Josef Castro , as chief, had with several Women many children, including his future successor, Juan Castro)
  • Juan Castro ( John Castro , succeeded his father Cuelgas de Castro as chief of the Tche shä group in 1842 (or 1844?) , Was the leading advocate of the Indians of the Brazos Indian Reservation in the 1850s, rather than their forcible relocation to Indian territory in the In 1859, the Lipan fled to Mexico and joined the Kickapoo)
  • List of chiefs and leaders of the Apaches # Lipan ApacheFlacco (approx. 1790 - approx. † 1850, chief of the Kóke metcheskó lähä group east and southwest of San Antonio)
  • Costalites ( ca.1820 - † 1873, chief of a group that migrated from Coahuila to southwest Texas, probably died of exhaustion after an escape from the prison corral in San Antonio as he was on hunger strike while in captivity)
  • Magoosh ( Ma'uish , approx. 1830 - † 1900, chief of a local group of the Tu'sis Nde in southeastern Texas and northeastern Mexico, were close allies of the Eastern Mescalero group of the Guhlkahéndé on the southern plains under their chief Nautzili and some Groups of the Comanche, sometimes they went on raids together with the Southern Mescalero under Chief San Juan and his sons Peso and Sans Peur , after a serious epidemic some fled to Zaragosa in Coahuila, the group around Magoosh moved to the Mescalero and accompanied them 1870 on the Mescalero reservation and later merged as Tuintsunde with the Mescalero, together with the chiefs Peso, Sans Peur, Shanta Boy and Big Mouth he served as Apache Scout in the last fighting against Geronimo, the war chief of the Nednhi group of the Chiricahua Apache and Bedonkohe shamans, together with the Mescalero chiefs Peso and Sans Peur, he was one of the three most important chiefs in the reservation on - Magoosh for the Lipan Apache in Elk Springs, Peso represented Mescalero Apache for the Rinconada and Three Rivers and Sans Peur for Mescalero Apache in Tule Canyon)

See also

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Sherry Robinson: I Fought a Good Fight: A History of the Lipan Apaches , University of North Texas Press, 2013, ISBN 978-1574415063
  2. ↑ Source: Patricia Roberts Clark: Tribal Names of the Americas: Spelling Variants and Alternative Forms, Cross-referenced , page 135, the names for the Lipan changed over time among Spaniards, Mexicans and later Americans.
  3. ^ The use of Peyote by the Carrizo and Lipan Apache tribes
  4. ^ The Lipan Tribe Museum and Cultural Center: The Lipan Apache Bands
  5. ^ Lipan Apache Tribe of Texas: History: Timeline
  6. ↑ Homepage of the Ski Apache Resort
  7. ↑ Homepage of the Inn of the Mountain Gods Resort and Casino
  8. ↑ Homepage of the Cultural Museum
  9. ^ US Department of the Interior - Indian Affairs - Mescalero Agency
  10. ↑ Apache Tribe of Oklahoma
  11. ↑ Homepage of the Tonkawa Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma ( Memento of the original from March 9, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.tonkawatribe.com
  12. ↑ Handbook of North American Indians: Plains by Raymond DeMallie, William Sturtevant, p. 955.
  13. ^ Contrary Neighbors: Southern Plains and Removed Indians in Indian Territory by David La Vere p. 171.
  14. ^ Historical Atlas of Oklahoma by Charles Robert Goins, Danney Goble, John Wesley Morris p. 87.
  15. ^ Website of the Tonkawa Indian Casino
  16. ↑ Native Lights Casino website
  17. ↑ Homepage of the Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb
  18. ↑ Homepage of the Lipan Apache Band of Texas ( Memento of the original from July 31, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.lipanapachebandoftexas.com