Cheyenne (people)

Faces of the Cheyenne people

The Cheyenne are a tribe of the Indians of North America , whose ancestors once lived in the west of the Great Lakes in the area of ​​the cultural area of the north-eastern woodland , but who, together with the culturally and linguistically related Arapaho, were subjected to the pressure of the armed and militarily superior Ojibwe and Assiniboine to the west and southwest had to avoid; From 1750, both peoples were the dominant military and political power of the Central Plains and the Front Range in western Nebraska and Kansas , in southeast Wyoming and in eastern Colorado, and as nomadic Plains Indians belonged to the cultural area of ​​the prairies and plains .

Historically they were close allies of the Arapaho, the Arikaree and later (their former enemies) the Lakota-Sioux , Comanche , Kiowa and Plains Apache . Her traditional enemies included the Shoshone , Ute , Osage and Pawnee, and in particular her archenemy, the Crow .

Surname

The name "Cheyenne" probably comes from the name Šahíyena from the language of the Dakota Sioux (Náhtovonaho - "Northern Sioux") and the Assiniboine and means "little Šahíya". Although the identity of the Shahíya is not known, many tribes believe that either the Cree or the Anishinabe (Ojibwe or Chippewa) (the Cheyenne called them: Sáhea'eo'o ) or a people like the Cree, Anishinabe and Cheyenne belonged to the Algonquian language family . The Assiniboine also called them Šahíyena , the Lakota-Sioux Šahíyela , the Arikaree knew them as Šaahéʾ , the Skidi Federation of the Pawnee as Sáhi and the southern bands of the Pawnee as Sáhe or also as Cárarat . The folk etymology for “Cheyenne” means “a little like a foreign language” or “people with a foreign language” (literally: “red speakers”).

The linguistically, culturally and politically closely associated Arapaho , however, called the Cheyenne Hítesííno ' ("scarred ones" - "those who have scars", "scarred").

The Cheyenne nation or Tsêhéstáno created according to its traditions of originally three allied tribes, the Só'taeo'o or Só'taétaneo'o (usually: Suhtai or Sutaio ; singular: Só'taétane), the Tsétsêhéstâhese (usually: Tsitsistas , singular: Tsétsėhéstaestse) and the Masikota (Cheyenne-Lakota), which later joined them , and which later split up into further bands or recorded further bands from neighboring tribes. The meaning of the name Tsétsêhéstâhese is still controversial today, some Cheyenne think that it is somehow derived from tsétsėhestase ("those who are like us" or "those who are like us"). Today, however, the meaning is usually given simply as "people".

For the Cheyenne themselves, the Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o and Masikota belonged to the politically united Cheyenne Nation (Tsêhéstáno), but they were not regarded as Tsétsêhéstâhese (Tsitsistas) , but as related and allied peoples, with slightly different people Languages ​​or dialects and traditions as well as an independent identity . The Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o and Masikota became politically and militarily powerful bands within the Cheyenne, and although they often roamed with the other bands, they preferred to camp in separate camps away from the rest of the Cheyenne; in particular the Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o were known not to marry outside (like the other Cheyenne and Masikota) but only within their tribe in order to be able to maintain their separate identity and language. Only because of the heavy losses caused by epidemics , wars, the advance of the Frontier and the collapse of the Cheyenne political system did survivors of decimated bands join others, so that the Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o started around 1830 had largely given up their language.

Tribal areas

The various bands and local groups of the Cheyenne roamed large areas of the Great Plains ; their tribal areas reached from the Black Hills (Mo'ôhtávo'honáéva - "place of the black rocks") in South Dakota (Ho'óhomo'éno - "Land of the Sioux") and the Powder River Country (Páeo'hé'e - " Gunpowder River ”or“ Coal River ”) in Montana (Ho'honáéšé'e -" rocky area ") and Wyoming (Hetanévo'ēno -" place of the Arapaho "), across the river basins of the Platte River (Meneo'hé'e - “Moon Shell River”, the North Platte River was also called this way), the Republican River (Ma'êhóóhévâhtseo'hé'e - “Red Shield River”, so called because the warriors of the Ma'ėhoohēvȧhtse (Red Shield Warriors Society ) gathered) and Smoky Hill River (Mano'éo'hé'e - “gather (timber) river”) of the Central Plains in western Nebraska and Kansas to the Arkansas River (Mó'soonêó'he'e - “Flint ( Arrowpoint) River ”) in the south to the Southern Plains in eastern Colorado and western Oklahoma (Heévȧhetanéno -“ really hot country ”).

The Cheyenne and Arapaho initiated the construction of Bent's Fort in 1833 on the upper Arkansas River in order to be able to exchange their goods directly with American traders, so as not to have to rely on other tribes as middlemen; They also wanted access to the pueblo markets in New Mexico, as well as the huge herds of bison and mustangs of the Southern Plains of Texas , New Mexico and Oklahoma. Many large and powerful bands moved south to the Arkansas River from 1815 to 1840 and established themselves here as successful traders on the Santa Fe Trail . The bands that remained in the north roamed the area of ​​the Black Hills, the Powder River and the Yellowstone River (Mo'éheo'hé'e - “Elk River” - “Wapiti River”) and stayed mostly north of the Platte River and the North Platte River, where the bands drawn south were mostly located south of the Platte River and grazed between the South Platte River (Vétaneo'hé'e - “Fat River” or “Tallow River”) south to the Arkansas River.

By 1840 the Northern and Southern bands had developed their own identity as Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne . The border of the tribal areas was the South Platte River in Colorado - here, however, also in the area of ​​today's city of Denver was a traditional meeting place for both tribal groups of the Cheyenne as well as an important trading center for neighboring tribes. (see also: Southern and Northern Arapaho)

Even though the individual bands of the two tribal groups had visited each other again and again and all the bands came together during the sun dance and other ceremonies, these contacts were extremely difficult when the famous settlers' treks on the Oregon Trail , Mormon Trail , right through their settlement area along the Platte River , California Trail and Bozeman Trail pulled (and caused many epidemics) as soon as it was cut by the transcontinental railroad (Ma'aataemeo'o - "iron road") from the middle of the 19th century . Already weakened by several epidemics, the advance of settlers and the gradual disappearance of the bison, the traditional camp of local groups and bands broke up.

Through the Treaties of Fort Laramie in 1851 and 1868 , the separation into Southern Cheyenne and Northern Cheyenne was officially recognized and established by the USA.

Political and social organization

Tribal groups and bands of the Cheyenne

The Cheyenne nation or Tsêhéstáno divided into ten political, military, cult and often also demographically dominant manaho or bands consisting of several local groups (ger .: localgroups passed), which in turn of several or a dominant matrilineal and matrilocal extended families ( extended families ) put together; In addition to these ten dominant bands, there were other smaller bands that joined the Cheyenne, but played no role politically. In winter the bands split up into individual local groups that moved to neighboring but separate winter quarters in order to have enough space for hunting in the hard season. In summer and autumn, however, the individual local groups reunited to form bands in order to successfully hunt bison together or to undertake sacred ceremonies and rituals . During this time, all the bands of the Cheyenne Nation came together during the Sun Dances and formed a large camp circle (Tipi Ring) , in which each band had its own specific place.

Northern Cheyenne (Northern Cheyenne)

Northern Cheyenne ( Notameohmésêhese or Notameohmésėhétaneo'o - "Northern Eaters", usually simply known as Ohmésêhese or Ôhmésêheseo'o - "Eaters")

• true Notameohmésêhese / Notameohmésėhétaneo'o ("Northern Eaters", mostly simply Ȯhmésėhese / Ôhmésêheseo'o or simply Omísis - "Eaters", so called because they were known as great hunters, had plenty of food and thus a large number of people The largest and most populous band of the Cheyenne, their tribal areas reached from the western and northern Black Hills in South Dakota west to the Powder River Country in Montana and Wyoming, these areas were mostly shared with the Totoemanaho and northern Só'taeo'o , through marriage they had strong family contacts with the Lakota Sioux; today they are - together with the Northern Só'taeo'o - the most influential band among the Northern Cheyennes)
• Northern Oévemanaho / Oivimána ( Northern Oévemana - "Northern Scabby", Scabby - "scabby, mangy", also reproduced as "Northern Scalpers" - "(Northern) tricky / manipulating traders", as they were known to be good traders; now live in and around Birney, Montana (Oévemanâhéno - ″ scabby-band-place ″) near the confluence of the Tongue River and Hanging Woman Creek in the southeast of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation)
• Northern Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o (mostly Northern Suhtai / Sutaio , only married other Só'taeo'o (Northern and Southern) and always settled separately from the other Cheyenne bands, maintained close contacts with the Notameohmésêhese band, lived together with these and the Totoemanaho between the northern and western Black Hills in South Dakota westwards to the Powder River Country in Montana and Wyoming, mostly stayed north of the Platte River, due to the better hunting grounds in the north they were significantly larger than the southern Só ' taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o ; now live in and around Birney (Oévemanâhéno - “scabby-band-place”) in Montana and are today - together with the Notameohmésêhese - the most influential band among the Northern Cheyennes)
  • first subband
  • second subband

smaller, less significant northern bands (not represented in the Council of Forty-Four ):

• However Anskówînîs / Anskowinis ( "narrow Nose", "narrow-nose-bridge", named after the first chief whose correct name was "Broken Dish" under his nickname Anskówînîs was common knowledge, they separated from the Ôhmésêheseo'o on Reason for a dispute)
• Mo'ȯhtávėhetaneo'o / Moktavhetaneo ( Mo'ôhtávêhetane - "black- skinned people" or "Ute-like people", so called because they were darker-skinned than other Cheyenne and therefore more similar to the Ute (Mo'ȯhtávėhetaneo'o) for them , also reproduced as “People of the Mountains” - which also refers to the Ute who lived west of the Cheyenne in the Colorado mountains, perhaps descendants of Ute prisoners; now live in Lame Deer, Montana (Mo'ȯhtávȯheomenéno - “black-lodge -place ”) district on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation; since Lame Deer is also the seat of the tribal government and the rations were once distributed here, it is also known as Meaveʼhoʼeno -“ the giving place ”or“ giving-whiteman-place ”)
• Ononeo'o / Ononeo (“Arikara People” or “Ree Band”, as there were many mixed marriages with the semi-settled Arikara (Ree) and Mandan living in the east , once strongly connected and associated with the Masikota (a Cheyenne-Lakota band), so that they were sometimes considered part of the Masikota; today they live in the so-called Rosebud / Ree district (Ónoneo'o) , the politically part of the Muddy Creek district, between Busby and Muddy Creek, some are also in the Lame Deer district (Mo ' ȯhtávȯheomenéno - “black-lodge-place”) resident)
• Totoemanaho / Totoimana ( Totoemana, Tútoimanáh - "Backward Clan", "Shy Clan" or "Bashful Clan" - "backward, shy clan", "shy, embarrassed clan", also translated as "Reticent Band" and "Unwilling Band", so named because they preferred to camp separately, lived in the northern and western Black Hills and along the Tongue River (Vétanovéo'hé'e - "tongue river"), hiked with the Notameohmésêhese and Northern Só'taeo ' o west to the Powder River Country in Montana and Wyoming, through marriage they had strong family contacts with the Lakota Sioux; they now live in and around Ashland (Vóhkoohémâhoéve'ho'éno, formerly Totoemanáheno - "place of the Totoemanaho") just to the east the border of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation)
• Vóhpoométaneo'o / Woxpometaneo ( Voxpometaneo - "people along the White River", "White River Cheyenne", named after the White River (Vóhpoome) in the Pine Ridge in northwestern Nebraska and South Dakota, also after an important extended family as Wóopotsît or Wóhkpotsit - "White Wolf", "White Clever People", had close family contacts with the Oglala - Lakota , the majority moved to their Cheyenne relatives and settled in 1891 south of the present day ghost town of Kirby, Montana near the upper reaches of Rosebud Creek outside of today's reservation , but today they mostly live in and around Busby (Vóhpoométanéno - "place of the Vóhpoométaneo'o") on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation, but some stayed with their Oglala Lakota relatives on the Pine Ridge Reservation and are therefore also known as Tsėhésė- ho'óhomo'eo'o - known as "Cheyenne Sioux")

Southern Cheyenne (Southern Cheyenne)

Southern Cheyenne ( Heévâhetaneo'o - "Roped People", "Haire Rope Men", "Hairy People" - named after the largest and most populous band, also known as "Fur Men" - "People of the (fur) trade" as they did leading the fur trade along the Santa Fe Trail at Bent's Old Fort , mostly known as Sówoniá - "the Southern People" or "the Southerners")

• true Heévâhetaneo'o / Hevhaitaneo ( Hévhaitanio , were closely associated and had close family contacts with Southern Arapaho (Southern Arapaho) , known as great warriors and known among the Cheyenne as the best horse tamers and paddockers among neighboring tribes - especially by the horse- rich Kiowa (Vétapâhaetó) 'eo'o - "greasy-wood-ones") and Comanche (Šé'šenovotsétaneo'o - "snake people"), they initiated the hike in 1826 under their chief Yellow Wolf (Ho'néoxheóvaestse) - together with some Arapaho some important bands south of the Platte River to the Arkansas River and the establishment of Bents Fort on its upper reaches, their tribal areas were between those of the Southern Oévemanaho in the west, the Wotápio in the east and the Dog Soldiers (Hotamétaneo'o) and Hesé'omeétaneo'o in the north, suffered heavy losses during the cholera - epidemic of 1849 , again about half of the survivors were in the sand Creek massacre of 1864 killed, including de r Chief Yellow Wolf and his brother Big Man; today they are the predominant band among the Southern Cheyennes)
• Hesé'omeétaneo'o / Hisiometaneo ( Hisíometanio or Issiometaniu - “Ridge People / Men”, “Hill Band” - “People in the hill chains”, originally part of the Heévâhetaneo'o , also known as the “Pipestem (River) People” Also close family contacts to the Oglala and Sičháŋǧu (Brulé) Lakota, first they lived directly south of the Masikota along the Niobrara River north of the North Platte River in Nebraska, later they moved south to the so-called hill country along the Upper Smoky Hill River and north of the Upper Arkansas River in Colorado - in areas mostly west of the Southern Só'taeo'o and Dog Soldiers (Hotamétaneo'o) bands, which are closely associated with them, and north of the Southern Oévemanaho and Heévâhetaneo'o , sometimes roamed southwards to the with Comanche Llano Estacado (Staked Plains) , suffered great losses under Chief White Antelope at Sand Creek)
• Heviksnipahis / Iviststsinihpah (“(Burnt) Aorta People” - “ Aorta People” or “Burned Aorta People”, according to tradition, a roasted aorta of a bison heart was used as a tobacco pipe in an emergency, as the keeper and protector of the Sacred Arrows ("Sacred Arrows" - also called "Medicine Arrows") they were referred to by other bands as "Arrow People" and considered the true Tsétsêhéstâhese / Tsitsistas , originally they lived along the tributaries of the Cheyenne River (the Antelope Creek and Dry Fork Creeks ) as well as along its upper reaches as well as in the southern and eastern Black Halls in northeast Wyoming, moved between 1815 and 1825 southwards into the area between the North and South Platte Rivers in southeast Wyoming and northeast Colorado as well as southwest Nebraska - which made geographical sense because theirs Tribal areas now had a central location for all bands and were easily accessible for the annual rituals and ceremonies of all bands ar, later they moved further south again and now settled between the Dog Soldiers (Hotamétaneo'o) in the north, the Oo'kóhta'oná in the southeast, the Hónowa and Wotápio in the south, including the Kit Fox / Swift Fox Warrior Society (Mótsėsóonetaneo'o or Mótsėsóonetaneo'o) - as also under the Northern Cheyenne - dominated, they had close family contacts with Oglala and Sičháŋǧu (Brulé) Lakota, since among these the dominant warrior society was the Kit Fox Society (in Lakota: Toka 'la) was)
• Hónowa / Háovȯhnóvȧhese / Nėstamenóoheo'o ( Háovôhnóva , Hownowa , Hotnowa - "poor people", also known as "Red Lodges People", lived south of the Oo'kóhta'oná and east of the Wotápio )
• Südliche Oévemanaho / Oivimána ( Südliche Oévemana - “Southern Scabby”, Scabby - “scabby, mangy”, so called because its chief allegedly developed a skin infection after using a mangy buffalo skin as a saddlecloth, also reproduced as “Southern Scalpers” - “(Southern "Tricky / manipulating traders", as they were known as good traders, originally part of the Heévâhetaneo'o , also had close family contacts with the Southern Arapaho (Southern Arapaho), moved together under the leadership of the Heévâhetaneo'o under their chief Yellow Wolf in 1826 south of the Platte River to the Arkansas River, lived south of the Hesé'omeétaneo'o and west of the Heévâhetaneo'o , under Chief War Bonnet they lost half of their tribe members in the Sand Creek massacre; today they live near Watonga (Tséh-ma'ėho 'a'ē'ta - “where there are red (hills) facing together”, also known simply as Oévemanâhéno - “Place of Oévemanaho”) and Canton , Blaine County , on land of the fr over Cheyenne and Arapaho Indian Reservation in Oklahoma )
• Masikota (“Crickets”, “Grasshoppers”, also known as “Gray Hair (ed) band”, “Flexed Leg band” or “Wrinkled Up band”), their name is probably derived from the Lakȟótiyapi words mazi (“iron”) and kute ("shoot"), literally: Mazikute - "Those who shoot with iron (weapons)", presumably originally a Lakota band that later joined the Cheyenne, continued to maintain close family contacts with Oglala and Lakota through many mutual marriages Sičháŋǧu (Brulé) Lakota and were known as Sheo among the Lakota , lived along the White River southeast of the Black Hills , since they were the first band on the Plains, they were also called First Named , almost wiped out during the cholera epidemic of 1849 , joined the few survivors of the - at that time outlawed and banned from tribal gatherings military or warrior society - the dog soldiers (Dog Soldiers / Hotamétaneo'o) , who now took over the place of the Masikota in the camp circle as a band as well as in the Council of Forty-Four , as part of the Dog Soldiers (Hotamétaneo'o) were not present during the massacre on Sand Creek in 1864 - since mostly the bands who were interested in compensation with the Americans were camped here, leading in the so-called Colorado War ( 1863 to 1865) as well as in vengeance along the Platte River of the allies Cheyenne, Arapaho and some Brulé and Oglala Lakota, lost their military and political importance after the defeat in the Battle of Summit Springs of 1869)
• Oo'kóhta'oná / Ohktounna ( Oktogona , Oktogana , Oqtóguna or Oktoguna - “Bare Legged” - “bare legs”, “Protruding Jaw” - “protruding jaw”, describes the type of their own dance, called Deer Dance , which in the Before a war was performed, once strongly connected and associated with the Masikota (a Cheyenne-Lakota band), so that they were sometimes considered to be part of the Masikota - but this is unlikely as they have the same right to vote in the Council of Forty - Four had, lived north of the Hónowa and south of the Heviksnipahis, were almost wiped out by the cholera epidemic of 1849, probably the few survivors also joined the Dog Soldiers (Hotamétaneo'o) )
• Wotápio / Wutapai (probably from the Lakȟótiyapi word Wutapiu ("Those who eat with Lakota Sioux"), "Half Cheyenne", "Cheyenne-Sioux", probably originally - like the Masikota  - a Lakota band that later joined the Cheyenne , had already moved south to the Arkansas River in Colorado in 1820 , established a strong alliance with the Kiowa, under whom they have often married since then , through the mediation of the Southern Arapaho, who had already moved south (who were allied with the northern bands of the Kiowa by marriage ) Camped in common camps - as a result they developed and identified themselves as a Cheyenne-speaking (some also spoke Lakȟótiyapi and Kiowa) Cheyenne-Kiowa band with Lakota roots, through the advance of the mighty Heévâhetaneo'o and Southern Oévemanaho to the south from 1826 onwards fierce war between the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho and the Kiowa, Plains Apache and Comanche for control of the Plains area te around the Arkansas River, the Wotápio now had to choose between their Kiowa relatives and the Cheyenne - and took part in the decisive campaigns for the Cheyenne, their hunting grounds were between the Hónowa in the east, the Heévâhetaneo'o in the west and the Heviksnipahis in the north, suffered the greatest casualties during the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864)
• Southern Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o (mostly Southern Suhtai / Sutaio , only married other Só'taeo'o (Southern and Northern) and always settled separately from the other Cheyenne bands, sharing together with the developing Dog Soldiers (Hotamétaneo'o) band tribal areas along the Smoky Hill River , Saline and the Solomon Rivers in northern Kansas, but their preferred hunting grounds were north of the Dog Soldiers (Hotamétaneo'o) areas along the upper reaches of the Republican River, particularly along the Beaver Creek, which was also an important spiritual place, the Hesé'omeétaneo'o - with whom they had the  closest contacts before their strong ties to the Dog Soldiers (Hotamétaneo'o) - lived mostly to the west and northwest of them)
  • first subband
  • second subband

smaller, less significant southern bands (not represented in the Council of Forty-Four ):

• Moiseo / Moiseyu ( Monsoni - “Flint-Men”, named after the predominant military society of the Flintmen Society (Motsêsóonetaneo'o) , also known as Otata-voha - “Blue Horses”, named after the first Soldier Chief of the Coyote Warriors of the same name Society (O'ôhoménotâxeo'o) - both were branches of the Fox Warriors Society (Vóhkêséhetaneo'o / Monêsóonetaneo'o), one of the four original Cheyenne military societies, also known as "Flies", originally a Dakota Sioux band from Minnesota, the Most of them, however, rejoined Dakota Sioux bands in Minnesota around 1815, the smaller part stayed with the Cheyenne and was mostly strongly associated with the Wotápio band, which was also of Lakota Sioux origin)
• Ná'kuimana / Nakoimana ( Nakoimanah - "people of the bear, bear people")

Dog Soldiers Band (Central / Middle Cheyenne)

The severe cholera epidemic of 1849 killed an estimated half of the southern Cheyenne and almost wiped out the once powerful Masikota and the smaller Oo'kóhta'oná / Ohktounna Band (both were among the ten most politically influential Cheyenne bands), so that The survivors of the - at that time ostracized because of the manslaughter of their leader Porcupine Bear and banished from tribal gatherings - military or. Krieger Society of dogs soldiers (Dog Warrior Society or Hotamétaneo'o) joined; these now functioned as an independent band among the Southern Cheyenne and took the place of the Masikota band within the camp circle (Tipi-Rings) and in the Council of Forty-Four (Council of Forty-Four ) after 1850 during the tribal gatherings . They now claimed the upper reaches of the Republican River and Smoky Hill River as tribal areas and encamped along the Saline and Solomon River in southern Nebraska , northern Kansas and the northeast of the Colorado Territory . Since the areas dominated by them were geographically located between those of the Northern and Southern Cheyenne, the Dog Warriors (Hotamétaneo'o) now acting as a band were referred to as Central / Middle Cheyenne .

Between 1838 and 1869 the Dog Warrior Society (Hotamétaneo'o) band developed into the largest and politically most powerful society among the Cheyenne and took part in the last battles against the Americans in Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado and Wyoming (as in the so-called Colorado Was from 1863 to 1865), during the increasingly bitter fighting they split off from the actual tribal association of the Cheyenne Nation and waged a relentless guerrilla war on their own, regardless of the resolutions or wishes of the other bands and the leading - mostly for compensation thought with the Americans - chiefs.

Therefore, they were not present during the Sand Creek massacre of 1864 (approx. 70 to 163 Cheyenne were killed, almost two thirds of them women and children), since mostly the bands who were interested in compensation with the Americans were camped here (the Wotápio / Wutapai under Black Kettle suffered the greatest casualties, perhaps half of the Heévâhetaneo'o under Yellow Wolf and Big Man and the Southern Oévemanaho under War Bonnet and many of the Hesé'omeétaneo'o under White Antelope were killed). Eight Council of Forty-Four chiefs and several military company leaders were also killed in the massacre, the majority of whom had advocated peace with the white settlers and the American government. This caused the traditional political and social system of the Cheyenne to erode more and more and the military societies soon dominated politics and saw themselves strengthened in their militant attitude towards any settlement or contract with the whites.

Now the Dog Warrior Society (Hotamétaneo'o) band not only joined warriors from other military societies , but often entire family associations of the Moiseo / Moiseyu and Heviksnipahis bands; since the two branches of the Kit Fox / Swift Fox Warrior Society dominated among these bands , many members of these bands - as well as the Dog Warriors themselves - were close to members of the Kit Fox Society (in Lakota: Toka'la) families of the Oglala and Brulé related to the Lakota Sioux .

After this massacre, which was devastating for the Cheyenne political system, the Dog Warrior Society (Hotamétaneo'o) band undertook Tall Bull ( Hotóa'ôxháa'êstaestse , * 1830 - July 11, 1869) and White Horse together with embittered warriors of the Cheyenne under their chiefs and Arapaho as well as closely related family Oglala and Brulé Lakota (most of the Dog Warriors (Hotamétaneo'o) were Cheyenne-Lakota) took part in vengeance campaigns along the Platte River, often under the leadership of the famous warrior Roman Nose ( Vóhko'xénéhe , Woqini or Woquini - "Hook nose" hooked nose (aquiline nose) , about * 1823 - September 17, 1868), a member of the Elk Warriors Society (often: Crooked Lance Soldiers) of the Northern Cheyenne. The renewed massacre on Washita in 1868 (estimates range from 13 to 150 Cheyennes killed, mostly women; 53 women and children captured) exacerbated the tribes even more, so the retaliatory campaigns between the Platte and Arkansas Rivers continued. However, after the defeat in the Battle of Summit Springs on July 11, 1869, in which about 35 warriors including Chief Tall Bull were killed, they lost their military and political importance and then largely rejoined the scattered and decimated bands of the Southern Cheyenne on, a small group joined the Northern Cheyenne.

Ethnogenesis of the Cheyenne Nation (Tsêhéstáno)

Fort Laramie Treaty (1868)

In contrast to other tribes of the Plains and Prairie - such as. B. the powerful Comanche  - both Cheyenne and Arapaho - appeared at an early stage as a politically and culturally united social association; Here, however, both did not form a homogeneous peoples or nations according to European understanding, as the Cheyenne originally consisted of three ethnically, linguistically and culturally-religiously different peoples (Tsétsêhéstâhese, the Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o and the Masikota) and the Arapaho of four (Nanwacinaha'ana, Hánahawuuena, Hinono'eino and Beesowuunenno '). While most of the other indigenous peoples of the Plains and Prairie disintegrated into politically autonomous bands and local groups - with the prominent exception of the Kiowa  - the bands of both peoples were political (common tribal council and election of chiefs) and cultic-religious (gathering of all bands for central rituals such as e.g. the sun dance ) and had built up a political-social idea of ​​a united nation or a tribe through other social systems and organizations (such as military or age-based societies).

On their long migration west to the Plains, the Cheyenne Bands were often joined by bands, local groups or extended families from neighboring - but ethnically and linguistically different - tribes; It also happened, however, that temporarily or forever smaller Cheyenne bands split off from the Cheyenne and joined other peoples; bands of the Northern Cheyenne in particular had family contacts with Lakota-Sioux (or were originally Lakota) and the Southern Cheyenne often with Southern Arapaho and Kiowa - so that it was common to hear several languages ​​in a Cheyenne camp, including Arapaho (Hinónoʼeitíít / Heenetiit) as the commercial language and later Lakȟótiyapi of the Lakota-Sioux (since the American government representatives mostly mastered variants of the Sioux languages).

Sometimes prisoners from foreign tribes were integrated as a band within the Cheyenne Nation - such as the Mo'ȯhtávėhetaneo'o Band, the majority of which were probably once captured Ute . On the other hand, the Cheyenne probably also took over cultural techniques (agriculture and tobacco cultivation ) as well as political and religious rituals and ceremonies (the institution of the Council of Forty ) from the semi-settled tribes of the Arikara (Ree) and Mandan along the Missouri River (and its tributaries) . Four , the military companies and the Maahótse (Sacred Arrows ); as the Cheyenne moved further west, the Ononeo'o Band had established itself among them , which was formed through the intermarriage of Cheyenne with Arikara (Ree) and Mandan.

As already mentioned, the militarily and politically powerful Masikota and Wotápio bands (both originally Lakota-Sioux) and the smaller Moiseo Band (originally Dakota Sioux) joined the Cheyenne; this in turn enabled the Notameohmésêhese , Totoemanaho , Vóhpoométaneo'o as well as the Hesé'omeétaneo'o and Heviksnipahis bands to also close family and political alliances with Lakota Sioux (in particular Oglala and Sičháŋǧu (Brulé) Lakota ). When the Heévâhetaneo'o and Southern Oévemanaho bands advanced south to the Arkansas River, they also sought to consolidate their position through a strong military-political alliance with the Southern Arapaho, who were already settled there (who were allied by marrying the northern bands of the Kiowa). At this time, however, the Wotápio (Cheyenne-Lakota) band, which had already penetrated south, had married - through the Arapaho - within the once hostile Kiowa, with whom they have often camped together since then and soon became a Cheyenne-Kiowa band (with Lakota roots) identified (some also spoke Lakȟótiyapi and Kiowa).

Presumably the Cheyenne-Lakota bands also encountered the closely related Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o (mostly: Suhtai / Sutaio) on the Missouri River at the end of the 18th century , who joined the Cheyenne bands after initial hostilities - and became part of the Cheyenne Nation (Tsêhéstáno). However, the Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o had - in order to be able to preserve their separate ethnic, linguistic and cultural identity from the other bands - different marriage rules , which only allowed them to marry endogamously (within) their own community and not exogamous (outside) among neighboring Cheyenne bands or tribes.

Therefore the integration of the Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o did not take place through mutual politically motivated marriages; According to the oral tradition of the Cheyenne, the Tsétsêhéstâhese (and Masikota) and the Só'taeo'o are characterized and represented by two cultural heroes or prophets , the founders of culture, a medium of cultural change and representatives of male and female power (and genders) at the same time are. These two cultural heroes were given by the Supreme God Ma'heo'o ( "Sacred Being, God," usually as Maheo, Mahiu reproduced before the proselytizing of the plural was Ma'heono used) or He'emo ( "Goddess, Female Sacred Being, God ”, the Só'taeo'o name) various sacred tribal objects, each of which was kept in a sacred medicine bundle.

The Tsétsêhéstâhese cultural hero Motsé'eóeve (“Sweet Medicine Standing”, “Sweet Root Standing”, mostly known as Sweet Medicine ) received the four sacred Maahótse (Sacred Arrows) (mostly: Mahuts - “Holy Arrows”, also called “Medicine Arrows”) ) near sacred Bear Butte in the Black Hills. Sweet Medicine organized the Cheyenne Society, established the military or. Warrior Societies as well as the Council of Forty-Four (Council of Forty-Four) and taught them the laws and law.

The Só'taeo'o cultural hero Tomȯsévėséhe ( Tomosevsehe , formerly also: Tomsivsi , mostly known as Erect Horns ) received the Ésevone (mostly known as: Is'siwun - “Sacred (Buffalo) Hat, Buffalo Hat, Sacred Hat”, mostly Sacred Buffalo Hat , old name synonymous with "buffalo herd", "female buffalo") or Hóhkėha'e (new name) near their sacred mountain Toh'nihvoos ("Stone Hammer Mountain") in the Great Lakes area in what is now Minnesota . The Só'taeo'o mediated by their culture hero to Tsétsêhéstâhese culture techniques and ceremonies (such as the Sun Dance ) of the Plains Indians , so now that this as nomadic bison hunters in Véhkenȯtse / teepees went about - hence the Só'taeo'o of the others were Cheyenne bands known as Ésevonaho ("buffalo people").

The Maahótse (Sacred Arrows) symbolize male power (and the male gender) and the Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat) represent female power (and the female gender). The identity of the band as a united Cheyenne Nation (Tsêhéstáno) is therefore by a strong positive duality or polarity marked because for them only by both tribal symbols - the Maahótse (Sacred Arrows) and the Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat)  - guaranteed is that the nation continues and is protected by Ma'heo'o or He'emo.

The exact date and the course of this ethnogenesis are not known, but the above statements show that not only the language, religion, ethnicity (or even skin color) - as according to the European understanding - for the formation and establishment of the Cheyenne Nation / Tsêhéstáno (Tsétsêhéstâhese , Só'taeo'o and Masikota) was decisive, but mostly jointly pursued economic, political and military goals.

Council of Forty-Four

The ten most politically and religiously important bands - the Notameohmésêhese (Notameohmésėhétaneo'o, also known simply as Ȯhmésėhese / Ôhmésêheseo'o / Omísis), Oévemanaho (Oivimána / Oévemana, Northern and Southern), Só'o'taétane / Só'taeo'oétane / Só'taeo'o (Suhtai / Sutaio, Northern and Southern), Heévâhetaneo'o (Hevhaitaneo) Hesé'omeétaneo'o (Hisiometaneo / Issiometaniu) Heviksnipahis (Iviststsinihpah, also known as true Tsétsêhéstâhese / Tsitsistas ) Hónowa (Háovȯhnóvȧhese / Nėstamenóoheo'o) Masikota (in Lakotiyapi: Sheo) Oo'kóhta'oná (Ohktounna / Oqtóguna) and Wotápio (Wutapai) - had the right four chiefs as delegates and representatives to the Council of Forty-four or Council of Forty-four , the traditional centralized system of government Send Cheyenne Nation.

The name Council of Forty-Four refers to the number of chiefs who had seats and votes in the council. Each of the ten bands mentioned above sent four main delegates. The other four chiefs served as advisers to the other delegates on questions of principle. The council chiefs were not elected, but usually appointed their own successors every four years, who were each elected for ten years and were in turn confirmed by the council. The council was usually made up of respected elderly men who deliberated on internal and external affairs that affected the entire tribe and made decisions binding on all Cheyenne. These decisions mostly dealt with wars or alliances with neighboring tribes or white settlers as well as disputes between the individual bands and local groups. In the internal affairs of the individual bands, the council members had no decision-making power, but these were taken by the traditional chiefs of the groups concerned. This system of representative democracy was responsible for internal and external political affairs, and through its control of the Cheyenne military societies, which had emerged to plan campaigns, enforce legal norms, and guide ceremonies after the Cheyenne wandered about in the Great Plains passed over. Many chiefs were elected from among the ranks of the military companies but had to give up their membership when they were elected to the council. Alongside the Council of Forty-Four , the Military Societies were the Cheyenne's second central executive (executive) institution.

However, the influence of the Council of Forty-Four waned in the face of internal Cheyenne political conflicts over the treatment of white settlers emerging on the Plains and the Sand Creek Massacre . In addition to the heavy losses of human life and material goods of the affected groups of the Arapaho and Cheyenne, the massacre also destroyed the traditional system of government of the Cheyenne, as eight members of the Council of Forty-Four and several leaders of the military societies were killed on Sand Creek . Most of the chiefs and leaders killed were those who had advocated peace with the white settlers and the American government. This tended to increase social tensions, as well as the political divide between the traditional Council of Forty-Four and its supporters, on the one hand, and the military societies, particularly the Dog Soldiers , on the other. For the Dog Soldiers, the Sand Creek massacre demonstrated the naivety of the peace chiefs' policy by negotiating with the whites and concluding peace treaties (Fort Laramie and Fort Wise ) and strengthening their militant stance towards the whites.

Cheyenne men's associations and military societies

As already mentioned, the cultural hero or prophet Sweet Medicine established and named the first four warrior or military societies of the Cheyenne ( pl.Nótȧxévėstotȯtse , sing. Nótȧxévestȯtse ), each of which had its own social chants ( nótȧxénootȯtse ) and dances and was supported by the so-called. Big War Chief Great war chief (in Cheyenne: Nótȧxévėhoneve ) - usually supported and advised by four to six so-called Chief Soldiers (Véhonenótȧxeo'o) . The "Great War Chief" was elected for a term of four years and was almost expected not to survive that time but to die bravely in battle. If, contrary to expectations, he was still alive, it often happened that he made a vow to seek the hero's death in the next fight against enemies - here the shaman often wrote a death song of his own for the fight. However, it was not uncommon for each military company to have its own version of these battle songs or death songs if the warrior had vowed not to return home alive. Over the years the individual companies continued to develop, changed or developed branches or other companies associated with them. As with many North American indigenous peoples, the number four is of particular symbolic and religious significance.

The four original warrior societies established by Sweet Medicine included the (Kit) Fox, Elk, (Red) Shield, and Bowstring :

Fox

Fox Warriors Society ( Vóhkêséhetaneo'o or Monêsóonetaneo'o ), also known as the Swift Fox Society or Kitfox Society ( Mótsėsóonetaneo'o or Vóhkėséhetaneo'o , both names referred to both the Swift foxes and the kit foxes ). This oldest warrior society is represented among both Northern and Southern Cheyenne. In the course of time, two more branches developed: the Coyote Warriors Society ( O'ôhoménotâxeo'o , derived from Ó'kȯhóme - " Coyote "). (According to Petter also: Headed-lances ) and the Flintmen Society ( Motsêsóonetaneo'o ), whose members, however, each considered themselves to belong to a society. The Kit Fox Soldiers have always been the dominant and leading warrior society among the Northern Cheyenne. Within the Moiseo / Moiseyu Band (Monsoni - "Flint Men") the Flintmen Society dominated , so that this even gave the band its name. Both branches of the Fox Warriors Society were represented among the Heviksnipahis / Iviststsinihpah and Masikota bands, so many members of all three Cheyenne bands mentioned were closely related to members of the Kit Fox Society (in Lakota: Toka'la ) families of the Lakota-Sioux . This society had with the chants called Mótsėsóonetanénootȯtse or Mónėsóonetanénootȯtse ("Chants of the Kitfox Society") - like the other military societies - each chants and dances that were only allowed to be used by it or danced in this way were allowed to be.

Elk

Elk Warriors Society also known as Elk Horn Scrapers ( Hémo'eoxeso ), Bone Scraper Society , Hoof Rattle , Crooked Lance , Headed Lance , Medicine Lance or Blue Soldiers . This famous warrior society, known for their courage to fight, was represented among the Northern and Southern Cheyenne. It was the second oldest society, it included the famous warrior Roman Nose (he was not a chief and, to the amazement of the Americans, was not allowed to take part in negotiations) and the Cheyenne half-breed George Bent . Mostly known to the Americans as Crooked Lances Soldiers , before the Dog Warrior Society (Hotamétaneo'o) gained strength in the early to mid-19th century, they had a certain predominance within the military societies , which were characterized by strong rivalries and competition.

Shield

Shield Warriors Society ( Ma'êhoohevaso ), also known as Red Shield ( Ma'ėhoohevase - “Redshields, lazy group”, literally: “red-nails (shields)”). or Red Fox ( Ma'ėhóoheho - " Red Foxes "). Originally represented under both Northern and Southern Cheyennes, they are now only found under Northern Cheyenne. The Buffalo Warriors ( Hotóanótâxeo'o ) or Buffalo Bull or simply Bull Soldiers ( Hotóanótȧxeo'o ) are a branch of the Shield Warriors Society. Therefore, among the Americans, all members of this society were known simply as Buffalo Soldiers .

Bowstring

Bowstring Men ( Hema'tanónėheo'o , also: Héma'tanóohese - "Bowstrings", literally: "Those who have bowstrings "), also known as Owl Man's Bowstring , because a Cheyenne warrior named Owl Man these - against traditional lore - allegedly founded. This warrior society was originally also represented under both Northern and Southern Cheyenne, but today it is only found under the Southern Cheyenne under the alternative name of Wolf Warriors Society ( Ho'néhenótâxeo'o ), which developed in the 19th century developed the Bowstring Men as a southern branch based on a vision of a warrior named Owl Friend . Among the Northern Cheyenne, the Wolf Warriors later called themselves Crazy Dogs ( Hotamémâsêhao'o ) or Foolish Dogs . The Wolf Warriors had developed their own chants (and associated dances) with the Ho'néhenootȯtse ("Chants of the Wolf Warriors Society") - while the Crazy Dogs with the Hotamémȧsėhánootȯtse ("Chants of the Crazy Dogs Society") also only listened to them using chants and dances. However, members of both warrior societies - the Wolf Warriors Society (under the Southern Cheyenne) and the Crazy Dogs (under the Northern Cheyenne) - considered themselves part of the same society originally called the Bowstring Men . Therefore, among the Americans, all members of this society were known simply as Bowstring Soldiers .

As already mentioned, the original four warrior societies developed further, formed branches and reorganized themselves - even new societies developed, which are often referred to as the fifth and sixth societies . The so-called fifth society includes the Crazy Dogs and the famous Dog Warrior Society (Dog Soldiers) .

Dog Warrior Society

A modern version of the Kȧhkoeóeseo'o headgear used by today's dog soldiers during a pow wow

The Dog Warrior Society ( Hotamétaneo'o ), also known as Dog Men , was founded on the basis of a visionary dream after the rapture from Sweet Medicine. Originally it was also found under both the Northern and Southern Cheyenne, but today it only exists under the Southern Cheyenne. Between 1838 and 1869 the Dog Warriors developed into the largest and most politically powerful society among the Cheyenne and took a leading role in the last battles against the Americans; After the death of almost half of the Southern Cheyenne and the almost complete annihilation of the Masikota and Oo'kóhta'oná / Ohktounna bands by the cholera epidemic of 1849, the survivors of the two bands joined the Dog Warriors and from then on they functioned within of the Cheyenne tipi ring as a band of the Southern Cheyenne. During the fighting they split off from the actual tribal association and waged a relentless guerrilla war on their own, regardless of the decisions or wishes of the other bands. After the defeat of Summit Springs in 1869, they rejoined the Southern Cheyenne, a small part moved to the Northern Cheyenne under Tangle Hair and took part in the Cheyenne Outbreak (Cheyenne Exodus) under Dull Knife (Motšėške Ȯhnėxāhpo, taking over the Lakota name ; Cheyenne name: Vóóhéhéve - " morning star ") from 1878/1879. Most of the Dog Warriors lost their lives and therefore probably merged with the Wolf Warriors Society , which was more numerous among the Northern Cheyenne, and later developed into the Crazy Dogs . This military society was and is the most famous society among the whites and was usually referred to in English as dog soldiers or in German as dog soldiers . Previously, the Elk Warriors Society or the Crooked Lances Soldiers had a certain predominance within the military society .

Crazy Dogs

The Crazy Dogs ( Hotamémâsêhao'o ), also known as Foolish Dogs , originally developed under the name Wolf Warriors Society ( Ho'néhenótâxeo'o ) as a branch of the Bowstring Men - until they later achieved the status of their own society. It has similar functions and rules as the Bowstring Men , but is only found under the Northern Cheyenne. Under these, the Dog Warrior Society merged with the Wolf Warriors Society and evolved into a new society called Crazy Dogs . The Crazy Dogs are considered by many to be the Sixth Society rather than a branch of the Fifth Society. Like the other military societies, they had chants called Hotamémȧsėhánootȯtse ("Chants of the Crazy Dogs Society") (and the associated dances), which were only allowed to be used by them or danced in this way. Quote : “The ... members imitate the coyote (in Cheyenne: ó'kȯhóme ) in their power of endurance, cunning and activity. They outstrip their fellow tribesmen in running long distances, playing games, etc. There are about 150 warriors in the society, and a head chief ”.

The so-called sixth society are often the spiritually closely related Hohnóhkao'o (for example: "Those who act contrary - on the contrary -", also "clowns") - but not to be confused despite having the same name - Contrary Warriors Society (a military society ) and the Contrary Society or Clown Society (consisting of contraries and clowns who acted socially); all three types of Hohnóhkao'o had different tasks and duties to perform within Cheyenne society. The Contrary Warrior Society was generally regarded as the sixth military society and had functions similar to the other societies. The Contra Ries and clowns , but there were no military society, but had the task of breaking through and crossing of social and societal norm - which was only allowed them - Cheyenne applicable social and religious rules and taboos just by their contrarian behavior constantly remind to guide and clarify; In doing so, they stood outside social control in their actions and provocative sayings - and at the same time they consolidated them through their actions. The best known are the comparable Heyoka of the Lakota Sioux.

Contrary Warriors Society

The Contrary Warriors Society (plural: Hohnóhkao'o , singular: Hohnohka ) was also known as the Inverted Bowstring Society , in English often also as reverse reaction warriors ("wrong warriors"), in German as "opposite warriors “Reproduced. Its members demonstrated their courage by sitting backwards (with their backs to the enemy) on their horses - that is, contrary to all other warriors - going into battle. They knew a sacred obligation to speak and act in this way. A mockery (“opposite warrior” / “wrong warrior”) only became a man to whom the personified thunder ( Nonóma'e - “thunder god”, sometimes rendered as thunder bird ) had appeared in a dream or in a vision . In contrast to other warriors, these were in constant readiness to fight, but remained on observation posts as long as the success of the other warriors seemed certain. In the event of war, the Hohnohka reacted to military orders with the opposite reaction: if, for example, the signal to attack came, his comrades attacked, whereas the "opposite warrior / wrong warrior" withdrew. And when the order to retreat came, his comrades had already given up the fight, then attacked the "opposite warrior / wrong warrior".

Contrary Society

The Contrary Society (plural: Hohnóhkao'o , singular: Hohnohka ), also known as the Clown Society . Their society was associated with the same spiritual holy powers and spirits as the warrior society of the Contrary Warriors Society . It was mostly composed of elders who were highly respected and tried and tested in the war and often worked as medicine men , and seems to be an older or more mature variation of the Contrary Warriors Society . Their task was to illustrate the Cheyenne religious and cultural commandments and prohibitions using humor , sarcasm and satire - they usually performed in their role as clowns during a ceremony, a social event (such as sacred dances, tribal gatherings or during the sun dance) on. As clowns, they showed the correct and expected way of life and behavior by acting contrary to it; they were also allowed to criticize or question the existing cultural norms, but only by means of parody . When they performed, they only wore clown costumes designed for them, which were either extremely ridiculous, inappropriate, or improper. After the end of a performance , the respective clown returned to his normal role within the social group, but he was usually also a member of an informal society. They were highly respected by the Cheyenne despite their seemingly antisocial actions.

In addition to the clowns, there were also the contraries , whose opposing behavior was not tied to any performances, rituals or wars. The contraries behaved everyday contrary to what is actually considered normal or conventional. Was it z. B. hot in summer, they wrapped themselves in winter clothes and freezed in public - in winter, on the other hand, they said they were “sweating”. In doing so, they used a "wrong language" (sometimes also called reverse language), in which the actual meaning is reversed. For example: “No” means “Yes” and “Hello!” Means “Goodbye!”. This wrong language also requires a "reverse reaction" from the contraries , that they do exactly the opposite of what other speakers say or ask of them. The same applies to these as well - all statements of the contraries must be interpreted and carried out in reverse by the others ; a mockery said to his wife “We still have enough firewood”, this meant that the woman had to collect new firewood. In the literature, this behavior is usually referred to as the Heyoka principle .

Cultural history

Way of life

If one takes a linear historical model as a basis - but other development models are also conceivable - then the cultural history of the Cheyenne Indians over the past four centuries can be roughly divided into about four cultural epochs . Initially, the ancestors of the Cheyenne lived as a sedentary people of field farmers in the western lake area ( cultural area Northeastern Woodland ), where they mainly cultivated corn and beans . They next took up residence in what is now the US states of Minnesota and South Dakota , where they continued to farm but were already hunting bison in the Great Plains . During the third stage, the Cheyenne gave up their sedentary way of life as unspecialized hunters and farmers and went completely over to bison hunting in the so-called "horse culture complex". With the complete abandonment of agriculture and sedentarism, the social power of women dwindled. The fourth stage denotes the reservation phase with forced sedentariness, the loss of the collective economic base and dependence on welfare programs. For Southern Cheyenne, there was also the privatization of collective land ownership by the General Allotment Act ( Dawes Act ) after 1891.

Northern Cheyenne with horse-drawn travois, 1890

Social system

With regard to the social system and the kinship organization of the Cheyenne Indians, there is no agreement among cultural anthropologists . After the Cheyenne had adopted the classic plains Indian culture, they had a bilateral kinship system ( bilaterality ), in which the descent is calculated through both the paternal and maternal lines. However, some anthropologists such as John H. Moore believe that the Cheyenne have retained traces of a matrilineal kinship system ( matrilinearity ). Whether the Cheyenne had ever developed a matrilineal clan system or whether it was a matter of regression in times of crisis has not yet been conclusively decided.

Creation story and cosmology

The Cheyenne have a supreme god, Heammawihio , who lives above them. Heammawihio (also called Maheo ) is regarded by the Cheyenne as the creator and teacher. Heammawihio once lived among the people. He taught them how to make arrows and knives and how to hunt. Heammawihio also showed them how to make fire and how to plant and feed on grain. After teaching them everything that was necessary to be able to live on earth, he ascended to heaven to watch over the Cheyenne from there. And when a Cheyenne dies, he goes to heaven to live with Heammawihio.

Besides Heammawihio there is another god in the earth, Ahk tun o 'wihio . He makes the plants grow, the water flow and he makes sure that the ground is firm so that people can walk on it. There are also the spirits of the four cardinal points, the Nivstanivoo , who let the wind blow.

The Sun Dance ( Sun Dance , the Cheyenne called him a New Life Lodge ) was a central ceremony of Cheyenne, which is particularly severe for her and were widely famous against ruthless interpretation on the Plains. The sun dance took place every summer and lasted eight days. The dancers had their muscles pierced with a strap over their chests and while they danced for hours, always playing a pipe and looking at the sun, they kept pulling and pulling the straps they were hanging on. These dances could go on for days and had the goal of putting the dancer into a trance through the tremendous pain and exertion. The dancer was only released when the strap loosened from the chest due to the constant tugging. The days of prayers, dances, self-mortification, and sacred ceremonies performed during the Sun Dance were intended to renew the spiritual life of the Cheyenne and all living beings on earth.

Also important for the Cheyenne was the Sacred Arrow Renewal Dance (= "Dance for the Renewal of the Four Sacred Arrows"), which, according to legend, was given by Heammawihio / Maheo Sweet Medicine , the traditional hero and prophet of the tribe, on the occasion of its four-year-old Pilgrimage to the sacred mountain of Cheyenne, Bear Butte near the Black Hills . All sacred arrows (also known as medicine arrows ) are called mahouts because Maheo gave them Sweet Medicine. In addition, he was commissioned to teach the Cheyenne their sacred ceremonies, chants, dances, prophecies and magic and thus to ensure peaceful coexistence within the tribe. Various powers have been ascribed to the sacred arrows. Two were called Buffalo Arrows because they possessed strength and power over buffalo and other animals, but could only be used in extreme times of need because their power was so great. The Cheyenne believed that if you pointed them at the affected animals, they would only run in circles, making it an easy target for the hunters. The other two were called Man Arrows and had the power to protect the camp against enemies, to force victory in battle and to ensure a successful raid. Before a fight or a war and raid, the so-called Arrow Keeper aimed the arrows in the direction of the enemy during a ceremony. The arrows had the power to blind the opposing warriors and thus greatly hinder them in battle. The four sacred arrows - red, white, yellow, and black - were kept together with other sacred tribal objects in the sacred medicine bundle and symbolized the unity of the entire tribe. The Southern Cheyenne were the keepers of these sacred objects. All Cheyenne groups gathered at regular intervals for this ceremony, during which they performed some rituals to renew the sacred arrows and thus the entire tribe. In contrast, the Sutai who joined the Northern Cheyenne brought the Sacred Buffalo Hat with them to the north, so that there was a central sanctuary in both the north and the south.

The Animal Dance (= " animal dance ", called by the Cheyenne Massaum ), also received from Sweet Medicine on the Holy Mountain and taught by Cheyenne, was a five-day dance that should bring success for the hunters. This was the only ceremony that women participated in the preparation. The warriors disguised themselves as animals and the members of the Bowstring Soldiers (also called Contrary Warriors because they had sworn an oath to do contrary actions) pretended to hunt them, doing everything in reverse, to the great amusement of all. The Animal Dance was the only annual gathering of all groups devoted solely to amusement, fun and clowning.

Recently, the peyote rite has also become a part of the Cheyenne religious and spiritual life within the Native American Church . The spiritual cleansing in a sweat lodge before the peyote ceremony and other rituals was and is important. There is also a revival of interest in the old traditions and the Cheyenne language, which is important for their practice.

history

Hike from the northeast to the plains

Girls of the Cheyenne, Edward Curtis , 1911

In the 18th century, some Indian tribes acquired firearms through European settlers, which upset the balance in the original Cheyenne habitat. Driven to flight by the Anishinabe (Ojibwe or Chippewa) (Sáhea'eo'o), the Cheyenne first moved to what is now North Dakota and towards the end of the 18th century to South Dakota and Colorado . In their new home they lost their skills in agriculture and handicrafts. They became nomads and followed the huge bison herds of the prairie. Presumably, the Cheyenne encountered the closely related Só'taeo'o or Sutaio (mostly: Suhtai ) on the Missouri River and united with them after initial hostilities.

Interaction with other tribes

Along with the Lakota-Sioux , Blackfoot and Comanche , the Cheyenne are among the best-known peoples of the nomadic Plains Indians . Before they were settled in reservations, they were with the linguistically and culturally closely related Arapaho (Hetanevo'eo'o - "sky people", "cloud people", sometimes simply became Héstanėheo'o - "people, tribe" called) a close trade and military alliance against hostile and sometimes numerically larger tribes such as the Shoshone (Sósone'eo'o), Paiute (Vóhkoohévoomâheo'o - "people dressed in rabbit skins") and Bannock (Panâhke'eo'o) and Ute (Mo'ȯhtávėhetaneo'o - "black (dark-skinned) people") of the Great Basin , the Nez Perce (Otaesétaneo'o - "pierced-nose-people") and Salish (Flathead) (Kâhkoestséataneo'o - "flat- headed-people ”) of the Columbia Plateau, the prairie tribes of the Osage (Oo'kóhtâxétaneo'o -“ cut-hair-people ”, also a term for the Kansa (Kaw) ) and Pawnee (Ho'néhetaneo'o -“ Wolfs -Volk ", referring to the Skidi Federation (Loup or Wolf Pawnee)) as well as the Plains tribes of the Crow (Óoetaneo'o -" crow (bird) -people "), Blackfoot Confederation (M o'ôhtávêhahtátaneo'o - "black-footed-people"), Gros Ventre (Hestóetaneo'o - "Those who beg for meat", "Schmarotzer", also: Môhónooneo'o - "scouting all over ones"), Assiniboine ( Hóheeheo'o - "wrapped ones" or "Swaddled", derived from the Lakoto / Dakota designation as Hóhe - "rebels") and their later allies - the Lakota Sioux (Ho'óhomo'eo'o - "the invited ones (to Cheyenne lands i. e. the Black Hills) ”) (from 1850), Kiowa (Vétapâhaetó'eo'o -“ greasy-wood-people ”), Plains Apache (Motsêhéonetaneo'o -“ occupied camp people ”) and Comanche (Šé'šenovotsétaneo'o - "Serpent People") (from 1840). Also to the various Apache and Navajo (Diné) (Hotamó'keeho - “Indians from out west ”; also collective term for tribes of the Southwest and Great Basins) living further south and the Tonkawa (Titska Watitch) (Mévavêheo'o - “eaters ( that are, cannibal?) ”) were often hostile relations - especially since their allies, the Arapaho - and later the mighty Kiowa, Plains-Apache and Comanche - were their bitter enemies.

On the other hand, together with the Arapaho, they talked to the settled Sioux-speaking Hidatsa and Mandan (Tsé-heše'émâheónese - “People, who have dirt houses (that is, earth lodges” - “People who live in earth houses ”)) and to the Caddo-speaking Arikara (Ónoneo'o) a friendly relationship that was based on mutual trade.

Split into Northern and Southern Cheyenne

In 1833 Bent’s Fort was built on the upper Arkansas River . Part of the Cheyenne decided to stay near it, becoming the Southern Cheyenne , while the others moved further north, into the Yellowstone River and North Platte Rivers area - the Northern Cheyenne . This separation was recorded in the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868 . Since then, between Northern Cheyenne ( Hotaméohmésêhese / Notameohmésêhese - "Northern Eaters", mostly simply Ohmésêhese / Ôhmésêheseo'o - "Eater" known) and Southern Cheyenne ( Heévâhetaneo'o - "Roped People", also "Fur Men" - "People of the (Fur) trade ”, mostly known simply as Sówoniá -“ the southern people ”or“ the southerners ”).

Battles and massacres involving the Cheyenne

• Sand Creek Massacre (November 29, 1864 in the Colorado Territory ): a winter camp on Big Sandy Creek (Pónoeo'hé'e), a tributary of the Arkansas River, by about 800 peaceful Southern Cheyenne under Chief Black Kettle (Mo ' ôhtavetoo'o, approx. * 1803: † 1864) as well as some southern Arapaho under Chief Niwot (Left Hand (-ed), approx. * 1825; † 1864), were from a total of approx. 800 men of the First Colorado Cavalry ( militia officers ) , Third Colorado Cavalry and a company of the First New Mexico Volunteers (militiamen) under John M. Chivington attacked, approx. 70–163 Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho - mostly women and children - were killed, along with the nearby wintering chief Little Raven (approx. * 1820; † 1889) the southern Arapaho could only escape because he had set up a separate winter camp)
• Battle of Julesburg (January 7, 1865 near Julesburg, Colorado): In retaliation for the Sand Creek massacre, around 1000 warriors of the dog soldiers gathered on January 1, 1865 at Cherry Creek (near today's St. Francis, Kansas) ( Dog Warrior Society or Hotamétaneo'o) of the Southern Cheyenne, the Northern Cheyenne under the leadership of Roman Nose (Vóhko'xénéhe, Woqini or Woquini - literally: Hook Nose , approx. * 1823, † September 17, 1868), the Northern Arapaho and Brulé under Spotted Tail and Oglala under Pawnee Killer of the Lakota ; they decided to attack Julesburg on the South Platte River, in the battle the tribes defeated the 60 soldiers and 40-50 civilians of the nearby Fort Rankin (later: Fort Sedgwick), killed around 14 soldiers and 4 civilians and suffered no losses themselves; for the next few weeks they pillaged ranches and stagecoach stations along the South Platte River.
• Massacre on the Washita (November 27, 1868 near today's Cheyenne , Oklahoma ): The common winter camp on the Washita River (Hoóxe'eo'hé'e - “Lodgepole River”) of about 250 Southern Cheyenne under Black Kettle and Little Rock (Ho 'honahke, about * 1805, † 1868), the chief of the Wotapio band, as well as some Southern Arapaho and Lakota, was despite assurances of peace of around 500 soldiers of the 7th Cavalry regiment under George Armstrong Custer and his Osage - scouts attacked. Custer reported that he killed 103 warriors, but according to Cheyenne only about 11 warriors and 19 women and children; Women and children were also killed and 53 women and children were captured by US forces. Custer also had most of the 875 Indian Mustangs shot, as a result of which the Southern Cheyenne were considerably weakened militarily, so that many settled on reservations.
• Battle of Little Bighorn (July 25-26, 1876 near the Little Bighorn River in the Montana Territory ): a vast encampment of approximately 900 to 2,500 Lakota warriors (all seven bands ) under the spiritual guidance of Sitting Bull , of Lower Yanktonai (Hunkpatina) and Wahpekute under Inkpaduta and Northern Cheyenne under the chiefs Two Moons (Éše'he Ôhnéšesêstsenoch, approx. * 1847; † 1917), Wooden Leg (Kâhamâxéveóhtáhe, approx. * 1858; † 1940) and the war chief Lame White Man ( Ve'ho'enohnenehe) was attacked by 647 soldiers of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under Custer, 268 soldiers were killed - including Custer, 55 wounded, several Arikara and Crow scouts lost their lives, the victorious Lakota either fled to Canada or surrendered a few months later.

Todays situation

Today the Northern Cheyenne live in the southeast of the US state Montana in the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation . The Southern Cheyenne live together with the Southern Arapaho in the west of the US state Oklahoma and have the official status of a federally-recognized tribe under the name The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes . In 1924 the Cheyenne became American citizens. Since the 1970s, they have regained the right to practice their religion. Since then, the Cheyenne have rediscovered their tribal awareness and remembered their ancient customs and traditions.

Demographics

The number of Cheyenne and Sutaio is estimated at 3500 in 1780. In 1904 one counted 1900 Southern Cheyenne and 1400 Northern Cheyenne. According to the 1990 census, there were 6,591 Cheyennes, 1,721 of whom still spoke the Algonquin language Cheyenne . The total population of the Cheyenne and Arapaho in 2008 was 12,130 people.

language

The Cheyenne or Tsêhésenêstsestôtse (simplified notation: Tsisinstsistots ) belongs to the enemy Blackfoot (Nitsitapii) and the Arapaho (Hinono'eiteen) as well as the Blackfoot (Ni'tsiitapipo'ahsin) , the Gros Ventre (A'aninin or Atsina ) and some with this associated divergent dialects of the allied Só'taeo'o (Sutaio or Sutai) of the Plains Algonquin regional group of the Algonquin language family . However, this subgroup is more culturally and geographically defined than on the basis of linguistic similarity, as the differences between the languages ​​mentioned are so great that the Arapaho and Só'taeo'o, Blackfoot and Cheyenne cannot understand each other, but rather through sign language communicated to the Plains. Today Tsêhesenêstsestôtse (Cheyenne) is still spoken by about 800 Cheyenne in the state of Oklahoma in the USA.

meaning

The capital of Wyoming is named after them, see Cheyenne (Wyoming) , likewise the town of Cheyenne Wells in Colorado, a river in South Dakota ( Cheyenne River ), the Cheyenne Mountains in Colorado and counties in Colorado, Nebraska and Kansas or the former Cheyenne County .

literature

• Donald J. Berthrong: The Southern Cheyenne . University of Oklahoma Press, Norman OK 1963
• George Bird Grinnell: The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Ways of Life . Yale University Press, New Haven CT 1923; Paperback edition in 2 volumes, Bison Books, Lincoln NE 1972, ISBN 978-0-8032-5771-9 and ISBN 9780803257726
• Hartmut Krech (ed.): Blauvogel, autobiography of a Cheyenne woman. In: Indian life. Indian women and men tell their lives . Books on demand; Norderstedt 2009, pp. 103-118, ISBN 978-3-8391-1047-8
• KN Llewellyn; E. Adamson Hoebel: The Cheyenne Way: Conflict and Case Law in Primitive Jurisprudence (first edition 1941). Reprint: New York, NY: Hein 2002, ISBN 1-57588-717-7
• John H. Moore: The Cheyenne Nation. A Social and Demographic History . University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln NE 1987, ISBN 0-8032-3107-5
• John Stands in Timber: Cheyenne Memories . Yale University Press, New Haven CT 1967, 2nd ed. 1998, ISBN 0-300-07300-3
• Howard Fast: The Final Frontier . Edition Büchergilde, 1941 by Howard Fast, 1968, 1977 for the German edition by Europäische Verlagsanstalt, Frankfurt

Web links

Commons : Cheyenne  - collection of images, videos and audio files

• Cheyenne Arapaho Tribe (official website)
• Northern Cheyenne Nation (official website)
• Cheyenne Culture and History Links
• We, the Northern Cheyenne People : Our Land, Our History, Our Culture Chief Dull Knife College, Lame Deer, Montana, 2008
• Bringing the Story of the Cheyenne People to the Children of Today . (PDF) MT state curriculum, 218 pp.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ( What is the origin of the word “Cheyenne”? ( Memento from October 20, 2005 in the Internet Archive ))
2. ^ American Indian Studies Research Institute (AISRI) Dictionary Database Search - Cheyenne
3. ^ William Bright: Native American Place Names of the United States . University of Oklahoma Press, Norman 2004, p. 95
4. ^ File of Arapaho Names for other Native American Tribes
5. ^ English-Cheyenne dictionary, p. 777
6. ^ Cheyenne Dictionary (Chief Dull Knife College) - Societies
7. ↑ the word ó'kȯhóme for the coyote was often wrongly rendered by the Americans as a wolf or fox . B. the great chief of the Northern Cheyenne Ó'kȯhómȯxháahketa (“Little Coyote”) is commonly known as Little Wolf in English .
8. ^ Glenmore, Josephine Stands in Timber, Wayne Leman (1984): Cheyenne Topical Dictionary, Busby MT: Cheyenne Translation Project , p. 176
9. ^ Karl N. Llewellyn and E. Adamson Hoebel: The Cheyenne Way: Conflict and Case Law in Primitive Jurisprudence ( The Civilization of the American Indian Series ), University of Oklahoma Press, 1983, ISBN 978-0-8061-1855-0 , P. 99
10. ↑ George Bird Grinnell: The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Lifeways (Library of Perennial Philosophy), Paperback, World Wisdom Books Inc, October 2008, ISBN 978-1-933316-60-4 , p. 48
11. ↑ Llewellyn, Hoebel, pp. 99-100
12. ↑ Llewellyn, Hoebel, p. 100
13. ↑ Tall Bulls Headdress (Dog Soldiers Chief)
14. ↑ George A. Dorsey: The Cheyenne: Ceremonial Organization . 1905, Vol. I, p. 19 (English). Paperback, Kessinger Pub, 2006, ISBN 978-1-4286-1291-4
15. ^ Clark Wissler: The American Indian, An Introduction to the Anthropology of the New World. New York 1917, p. 34. John C. Ewers: The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture: With Comparative Material from Other Western Tribes. Washington, DC, 1955, pp. 2 ff.
16. ↑ Meaning of the name
17. ↑ Religion and Ceremonies ( Memento of the original from August 26, 2005 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
18. ^ Cheyenne tribe divisions and names for other tribes
19. ^ Oklahoma Indian Affairs . Oklahoma Indian Nations Pocket Pictorial Directory. 2008, p. 7