Blackfoot

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Former Blackfoot tribal area, now a reservation in Montana and reservations in Alberta, Canada

The Indian tribal group known as Blackfoot (in Canada ) or Blackfeet (in the USA ) ( English "Schwarzfuß / Schwarzfuß") comprised the four culturally, historically and linguistically closely related tribes of the Siksika (Siksikáwa or Blackfoot) , Kainai (Káínawa or Blood ) and the Northern Piegan (Apatohsipikani or Peigan) and Southern Piegan (Aamsskáápipikani or Blackfeet) in the south of the Canadian Prairie Province of Alberta and in the north and southwest of Montana , USA.

All four strains spoke (spoke) each slightly different dialects of the Plains Algonquin counting Black Foot (Ni'tsiitapipo'ahsin / Nitsipussin) and designate as Ni-tsi-ta-pi-ksi or Ni-tsi-ta-pi / Niitsítapi ( ᖹᐟᒧᐧᒣᑯ) ("True People"). The Nitsitapii (Blackfoot) often referred to themselves as Nitsi-poi-yiksi ("people who speak our - the true - language") to differentiate themselves from neighboring tribes .

The total population of the four Nitsitapii (Blackfoot) tribes prior to contact with Europeans and three devastating epidemics is estimated at 15,000 to 18,000 tribal members.

Naming and designation

Only the actual Blackfoot - the Siksika - referred to themselves as such, this name Siksika (singular) comes from the Blackfoot (Ni'tsiitapipo'ahsin or Nitsipussin) and means "black foot" and is derived from the words sik ("black") and ka ("foot"), which are put together using the infix -si- . The plural is Siksikáwa ("black feet"). The first Europeans probably first met the Siksika and transferred the word Blackfoot to the closely related tribes of the Kainai and Northern and Southern Piegan.

Traditional tribal area of ​​the Nitsitapii (Blackfoot)

The traditional territory of the three great tribal groups of the Nitsitapii (Blackfoot) comprised large areas of the Northwestern Plains and extended in the north to the North Saskatchewan River ( Ponoká'sisaahta or Ponokasisahta - "Elk River") with Fort Edmonton (formerly: Edmonton House , today's Edmonton ) as an important trading post and no later than the middle of the 19th century in the south to the Musselshell River and Yellowstone River ( Otahkoiitahtayi or Otahkoi-tah-tayi - "Yellow River") in Montana. They also ruled the upper reaches of the Missouri River and roamed south to Three Forks along the Madison River , Jefferson River , Ruby River , Beaverhead River , Red Rock River , Big Hole River and Wise River in southwest Montana , and the Small Robe hunted Band of Piegan mostly south of the Missouri River . In the west, their territory was bounded by the Rocky Mountains ( Miistakistsi ) and extended in the northeast along the South Saskatchewan River to today's Alberta-Saskatchewan border ( Kaayihkimikoyi ), east of the Cypress Hills and the Great Sand Hills ( Omahskispatsikoyii ) in the southwest of Saskatchewan and in the southeast on the plains to the Montana-North Dakota border. The Sweet Grass Hills (in Blackfoot: kátoyissiksi - "Sweet Pine Hills") and Chief Mountain ( Ninastako ) were their sacred mountains. They named their tribal area Nitawahsin-nanni (ᖹᒣᖷᑊᓱᐡ ᖻᖹ) ("Our Land"), an obvious word equation with Nitassinan ("Our Land"), the name for the territory of the Innu and Naskapi in the east. Today the term Niitsítpiis-stahkoii (ᖹᐟᒧᐧᐨᑯᐧ ᓴᐦᖾᐟ) ("Land of the True People") is also common.

Blackfoot Confederacy Tribes

Black-footed Indians by Jaroslav Čermák
  • Siksika (singular: Siksikáíkoan - "black feet", plural: Siksikáwa - "black feet", hence in English mostly Blackfoot , Blackfeet or Blackfoot Proper , as the smallest and northernmost tribal group sometimes also called Northern Blackfoot , often called themselves Sao-kitapiiksi - " People of the Plains ”); lived mostly east of today's Calgary (in Blackfoot moh-kíns-tsis - "elbow") along the Battle River in the north south along the Sounding River , Red Deer River to the Bow River in south-central Alberta and east along these rivers as well as along the South Saskatchewan River to west of Saskatchewan . However, they were often found further north along the North Saskatchewan River, and although they alsoroamedsouth to the Milk River and Missouri Rivers in northern Montana in the United States , they were closer to the British (and later Canadians) and were in the Usually not involved in trade or contracts with the Americans, approx. 2,000 to 3,000 tribal members, in 1879 2,249 tribal members were officially registered.
  • Kainai ( Kainah , Káínawa or Akainawa - "people of the many chiefs, ie the haughty", the hostile Cree called them Miko-Ew - "the bloody who stained with blood, ie the bloodthirsty, cruel", European traders and settlers took over the name as Blood - "the bloody ones"); they once hunted between the Red Deer River , Bow River , Oldman River , Belly River , Waterton River and St. Mary River west of Lethbridge in southwest Alberta , but they roamed north to what is now Edmonton , Alberta, east to the Cypress Hills in the southern border area of ​​Alberta and Saskatchewan, and westward to the Rocky Mountains, but in the mid-19th century they moved southward to Pakowki Lake (in Blackfoot: "bad water"), Belly River and Teton River and Milk River , with them oftenwandereddeep into Montana , traded with both the American Fur Company and the Hudson's Bay Company , approximately 2,500 to 3,500 tribe members, decimated to 1,750 by the smallpox epidemic of 1837.
  • Piegan (also Pikuni (i) , Pi (i) kani , Piikáni , Pekuni or Peigan - "mangy clothes soiled with scabies" or "those who had bad clothes or torn robes", known to the fur traders as Muddy River Indians , since the area of the Muddy River designated upper reaches of Missouri River dominated); roamed the foothills of Rocky Mountain House at the confluence of Clearwater and North Saskatchewan (there they traded first with the North West Company , later with the Hudson's Bay Company ) to Heart Butte , Montana, and eastward to the Northwest Plains, in the mid-19th century In the 19th century they moved further south into the area of ​​the Teton River and Marias River in Montana and the Milk River region in southern Alberta, but they migrated northward to Fort Edmonton (formerly: Edmonton House ) and eastward to what is now Alberta - Saskatchewan - Border, the Piegan were the largest and most powerful tribal group of the Blackfoot, approx. 4,000 to 5,000 tribal members, decimated by the smallpox epidemic of 1837 to approx. 2,500.
    • Northern Piegan (call themselves Apatohsipikani , Aapátohsipikani or Aputosi Pikani , in Canada today mostly referred to as Peigan , sometimes also as North Pikani or Skinnii Piikani in relation to their southern cousins); lived along the Oldman River , in the Porcupine Hills and on Crow Creek in southwest Alberta, west of the Kainai, in 1870 there were 720 tribal members, in 1906 there were 493 in the Piegan Agency in Alberta, Canada.
    • Southern Piegan (call themselves Amsskaapipikani or Amskapi Pikuni , lived along the upper reaches of the Missouri River and its tributaries in the northwest and central Montana , they often roamed south to the Musselshell River and Yellowstone River , in the USA mostly as Piegan Blackfeet or simply Blackfeet sometimes referred to as South Pikani in relation to their northern cousins, 1858 estimated around 3,700, in 1861 Hayden estimated around 2,500, in 1870 there were 3,240 registered, in 1906 there were 2,072 tribal members in the Blackfeet Agency in Montana)
    • Inuk'sik (also I-nuks'-iks or Inuck'siks - “Little, poor clothing”, “Small robes”, but literally “Those who wear small (more) clothes”, usually called Small Robe Band , hunted and set beaver traps mostly south of the Missouri River around Three Forks along the Madison River , Jefferson River , Ruby River , Beaverhead River , Red rock River , Big Hole River and Wise River in southwestern Montana , once the largest and most powerful group of Piegan were Theyweakened earlythrough smallpox and attacks by the Absarokee (Crow) and Salish groups and had lost their once leading position among the Piegan, mostly joined the Southern Piegan, in 1832 there were around 250 tipis with around 2,500 tribal members (James Kipp , American fur trader), after 1846 approx. 150 tipis with approx. 1,500 tribal members, (John Ewers))


In addition to the actual Blackfoot tribes, the so-called Blackfoot Confederation also included:

and the

The Sarcee were the northernmost representatives of the Plains culture and among the tribes on the northwestern Plains they were generally considered to be the bravest and most warlike .

Enemies of the Blackfoot Confederacy

The Niitsitapi were enemies of the Absarokee , Cheyenne ( kiihtsipimiitapi - "Pinto People"), the Sioux ( Dakota , Lakota and Nakota , referred to by the Blackfoot as pinaapisinaa - "Eastern Cree, i.e. Eastern enemies") on the Great Plains and the Shoshone , Salish and Flathead , Kalispel (also known as Lower Pend d'Oreille ), Ktunaxa (mostly known as Kutenai or Kootenai , derived from the Blackfoot name as kotonáá'wa ) and Nez Percé ( komonóítapiikoan ) in the Rocky Mountain area in the west and southwest.

Their most powerful and dangerous enemy, however, was the trade and war alliance of the so-called Iron Confederacy (so called because it had a trade monopoly as a middleman for English and French goods - in particular rifles, ammunition, metal goods, knives, awls, axes, tomahawks , Kettle as well as tobacco and alcohol with the western Plains and Prairie tribes) or Nehiyaw-Pwat (in Cree : Nehiyaw - "Cree" and Pwat or Pwat-sak - "Sioux (enemies), ie Assiniboine") - named after the dominant Plains Cree ( called Asinaa by the Blackfoot ) and Assiniboine ( Niitsísinaa - "actual, real Cree"), including the Nakoda (Stoney) ( Saahsáísso'kitaki or Sahsi-sokitaki - "Sarcee trying to cut" - " those who who are trying to decimate the Sarcee ”) Saulteaux (also Plains Ojibwa , had moved west and southwest at the beginning of the 18th century and joined the Cree-Assiniboine) and French and Anglo Métis in the north, east and south sten. With the expansion of the Nehiyaw-Pwat to the north, west and southwest, the alliance integrated larger groups of the Iroquois , Chipewyan , Daneẕaa ( Dunneza - "The real (prototypical) people"), Ktunaxa, Flathead and, from 1861, the former Blackfoot allies Gros Ventre (hence atsíína - called "like a Cree"), in their local groups. Loosely allied with the Nehiyaw-Pwat, but politically independent, were neighboring tribes such as the Ktunaxa , Secwepemc and especially the arch enemies of the Blackfoot Confederation, the Absarokee (Crow) or Indian trading partners such as the Nez Perce and Flathead.

Culture

The Blackfoot were nomadic hunters and gatherers. They lived in small groups in bison skin tipis . Sometimes a few groups or even an entire sub-tribe came together to form hunting expeditions. For the Blackfoot Indians, the Pleiades constellation was of vital importance. The state of the Pleiades at the beginning of the dry season was the starting signal for an elaborate hunt for the huge bison herds . Once the Pleiades have disappeared into the starry sky, the bison have also disappeared. In a mythical legend with seven orphans , the experience of the common appearance and disappearance of the Pleiades and the bison is reflected. According to legend, seven orphans, who were once denied warming bison skins, took the bison with them as a punishment for the people. The sun god saved the children and gave them a place in the starry sky. Dogs begged for the villagers by howling at the night sky. Finally the children returned with the bison.

The bison were the main source of food. In addition to the meat of the bison, the Blackfoot also used almost all other parts of the animal. They also hunted other large game such as grizzly and black bears , deer, elk , pronghorn , wild sheep and mountain goats , sometimes also small game such as rabbits and chipmunks and birds such as swans , geese , ducks and prairie chickens . They only ate fish and dogs in emergencies. They also collected berries, especially rock pears and bird cherries .

The Blackfoot worshiped the sun as supreme deity, the moon as his wife, and the morning star as their son. The thunder was considered a powerful spirit. They gave special powers to eagles, ravens and other birds.

The Blackfoot groups were not organized hierarchically, but were led by chiefs and larger groups had additional sub-chiefs. In times of war, an experienced man sometimes took the lead as the war chief. Individual Blackfoot could change groups at will.

The everyday objects were mainly made of bone, stone and wood. Warriors were armed with bows and arrows, lances, shields, and clubs. Fighting with hostile tribal groups occurred mainly when the Blackfoot or their enemies penetrated into enemy territory to hunt.

One of the common names used by all Blackfoot subgroups is ᖹᑊᒧ̇ᐧᒣᑯ Niʾtsiitapi (plural: ᖹᑊᒧ̇ᐧᒣᑯᖿ = ᐟᖽᐧ Niʾtsiitapikoaiksi). This designation is made up of -iitapi- "person" (although animals can also be called a person), -koan (Pl .: -koa-iksi) "people" and niʾt-, which the Indians themselves usually call "balanced" "Is translated as" balanced "," balanced ". For them, however, the word niʾt- clearly comes from a trialectical folk-philosophical approach. The same applies to ᖹᑊᒧ̇ᐧᒣᑫᑉᑊᑯ Niʾtsiitapiaʾpi as “balanced culture” and ᖹᑊᒧ̇ᐧᒣᑯᑊᑲᖳᐦᓱᐡ Niʾtsiitapiʾpoʾahsin as “balanced language”. This philosophical basis can mean that profane speech, even on Blackfoot, is not to be regarded as Niʾtsiitapiʾpoʾahsin, while it can very well be Niʾtsiitapiʾpoʾahsin when an animal speaks to a person in a visionary dream.

history

Early history and nomadization

Crowfoot , former chief of the Siksika Blackfoot

Around 750 a separate culture can be found in central and southern Alberta, which has a highly developed pottery. The carriers of this culture were probably the ancestors of the Blackfoot.

The Blackfoot were among the first Algonquians to move west out of the woodlands into the open grasslands. They probably hiked on foot and used wooden, dog-drawn travois to carry their belongings. In the early 18th century, these tribes hunted the buffalo on foot and lived in the Saskatchewan Valley, about 400 miles east of the Rocky Mountains . After 1730, the Blackfoot got their first horses. In 1754, the crew of the York Factory on Hudson Bay made fun of Antony Hendry when he reported that the Siksika had horses. Around the same time they exchanged European firearms at the Plains Cree .

These two achievements put them at an advantage over the neighboring tribes, with whom they were mostly enemies. Horses were very important to the Plains tribes, both in war and hunting. The tribes regularly raided each other in order to get as many horses as possible.

The Sioux, which predominated in southern Alberta between around 1650 and 1730/40, had also migrated westward. However, they may have been ousted by the Iroquois , much like the Sioux tribes of the Dakota , Nakota, and Lakota further south. They built a fort at a ford through the Bow River , 120 km east of Calgary , known as the Cluny Fortified Village . They must have brought the first horses to Alberta. However, a joint Blackfoot and Cree force halted their expansion. A severe smallpox epidemic hit the Sioux so badly that they completely disappeared from Alberta.

First Europeans, trade and conflict, epidemics

The first English explorer we know of reached the Blackfoot in 1754. Anthony Hendey (also Hendry) spent the winter of 1754/1755 with the Blackfoot and visited the Red Deer and Edmonton area . His account of the Siksika who kept horses met with disbelief. But from around 1780 the Blackfoot traded directly with the British. During this time they displaced weaker tribes, thrusting west to the Rocky Mountains and south to what is now Montana. At the height of their power in the early 19th century, they controlled an area from the northern Saskatchewan River to the upper reaches of the Missouri in the south.

The Piegan Blackfeet Indian Pioch-Kiäiu in war paint (detail from the watercolor by Karl Bodmer from August 21, 1833)

In later years more and more Plains Cree and Assiniboine began to penetrate into Blackfoot territory from the north and east. The Piegan moved to the Missouri region, the Blood to the Bow River and Belly River , only the actual Blackfoot were able to defend their territory on the Red Deer River .

The Blackfoot were friendly to British traders in the north , but hostile to American trappers and traders who came up the Missouri from the south. This hostile attitude went back to the expedition of Lewis and Clark in 1806, in which the expedition participants had killed two Piegan. A second reason was that Americans had different practices in obtaining fur . The British built forts and bought furs from the Indians there; however, the Americans hunted the fur animals themselves. The conflicts came to a head when the Americans built Fort Lisa at Three Forks , on the edge of Blackfoot Territory . In 1831 the American Fur Company built Fort Piegan on Missouri and used it to trade with the Blackfoot. This led to a slight relaxation. As a result, the Blackfoot obtained good prices for their goods; they could play the British against the Americans and vice versa. It remained dangerous for American trappers to invade Blackfoot territory.

Another reason for the Blackfoot's negative attitude was the threat of smallpox epidemics, such as 1780 to 1782, which killed an unknown but large number of Indians. Equally disastrous was the flu that hit Saskatchewan , the Athabasca, and the Peace Rivers in 1835. These epidemics caused the fur trade to collapse for years because the surviving Indians avoided contact.

Treaties and Reservations

American bison

In 1851, a reservation was provided for the first time in a treaty that was concluded without the Blackfoot (Treaty of Fort Laramie). In 1855, the Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, Flathead , Nez Percé, and Plains Cree signed a peace treaty with the United States in which these tribes allowed the United States to build a railroad, roads, telegraph lines, and military posts in their area. In return, the Indians were granted exclusive hunting rights in their territories, henceforth called reservations , and annual payments.

A little later, more and more white settlers began to penetrate into what is now Montana. This is why the US government was unable to enforce compliance with the treaty, and from 1864 there were isolated attacks by bitter warriors. In 1865 and 1869, the Blackfoot concluded further contracts with the USA, which led to a reduction in the size of the reservation . It was reduced again in 1873, 1874, 1888 (Sweet Grass Hills Treaty) and 1895.

The treaty of 1888 was particularly important because it introduced the so-called allotment system , with which land ownership was individualized. With the Treaty of 1896, the tribe had to cede the area that later became Glacier National Park .

Maria's massacre

On January 23, 1870, the United States Army repaid attacks by individual Blackfoots with a massacre, the so-called Marias Massacre , also known as Baker's massacre , at the camp of Chief Heavy Runner. Over 173 Blackfoot died, three quarters of them women and children. The attacked camp was the wrong one, as the camp had been warned by Mountain Chief, father of Owl Child, one of the resistance Blackfoot, and was able to escape. Major Bakers nevertheless gave the order to attack Heavy Runner's innocent camp. There were hardly any men in the camp because they were on the hunt. The massacre was carried out on women, children and those suffering from smallpox . Survivors were burned alive with the tipis . The Blackfoot (here the Piegan tribe), weakened by a smallpox epidemic, were unable to resist. As a result, the remaining Blackfoot on US territory were relocated to an Indian reservation in northern Montana.

The Blackfoot were not involved in the wars against the whites, but they suffered enormous losses from the smallpox epidemics of 1780-1858, some of which were caused by infected blankets. In addition, white traders sold the Blackfoot alcohol in large quantities. Between 1868 and 1873, around a quarter of Blackfoot died from excessive alcohol consumption, it is said. In 1874, the North West Mounted Police in Canada put an end to alcohol sales.

The number of Blackfoot fell from an estimated 15,000 people in 1780 to 4,635 in 1909. In addition to epidemics, war and alcohol, it was above all the destruction of the buffalo that deprived them of their most important food source. The northwest buffalo herd , the huge buffalo herd of the northwest, was estimated at 4 million animals in 1874, of which only a few existed in 1880. The cultural upheavals in a tribe that until then had mainly lived from buffalo hunting and now relied on government aid were difficult to cope with. Around 1900, around 2000 tribesmen lived near Badger Creek, where the Indian agency was located.

Treaty No. 7th

In 1877, the Canadian Blackfoot signed the Treaty No. 7 known contract with which they handed over their 160,000 km² hunting grounds (Germany: 357,000 km²) in Canada. For this they received three small reserves as well as annual payments.

As of 1880, the Blackfoot lived in four separate areas:

  • Southern Piegan (Amsskaapipikani) today form the Blackfeet Tribe in the Blackfeet Reservation in northwest Montana
  • Northern Piegan (Apatohsipikani) today form the Piikani Nation in the Piikani 147 Reserve in southern Alberta
  • Kainai (Blood) now form the Kainai (Blood) Nation (Kainaissksaahkoyi) in the Blood 148 and Blood 148A reserves in southern Alberta
  • Siksika (actual Blackfoot) today form the Siksika Nation in the Siksika 146 Reserve in southern Alberta

School System and Agricultural Direction, Indian Trust

The Catholic missionaries campaigning among the Blackfoot since 1859 founded the first schools. But only with the state schools, a boarding school and day schools , did the US government enforce compulsory schooling. The situation was similar on the Canadian side, where boarding schools were being built.

Frances Densmore and Mountain Chief at a recording for the Smithsonian Institution , 1916

Around 1900 the government also tried to get the tribes used to farming. Around 1915, cattle breeding was preferred, but in 1919 it collapsed completely. The cause was extreme drought. Many Blackfoot had to sell their now private land because they could no longer raise taxes and pay off their debts. With the help of the local Indian agent , the Blackfoot are now focusing on small businesses and growing wheat and vegetables.

As everywhere in the United States, the government established a form of land and asset management for the reservation Indians , the Indian Trust . However, due to the lack of control, this became an administrative system that was not transparent and against which lawsuits are pending to this day. The plaintiffs accuse the trust of embezzlement on a large scale. On the other hand, the Blackfoot area received trust status, so it was protected from further expropriations and reservation reductions. All of this was done with the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. This law also provided for a government of the tribe, a Tribal Council .

language

They call their language, the Blackfoot , Ni'tsiitapipo'ahsin ("language of true, balanced people") or Nitsipussin ("true, real language"). However, of the approximately 39,000 Nitsitapii (Blackfoot) only 3,250 in Canada and 100 in the USA speak their mother tongue today, most of them now speak Canadian or American English as their first language. Some of the younger Nitsitapii (Blackfoot) in Canada also speak Cree.

Since 2008, the various tribes have been trying to get the Blackfoot language integrated into the local curricula for schools. To do this, many terms had to be newly created, for example to do justice to technical or mathematical issues.

Modern Blackfoot tribes

Today (as of July 2016) the various Nitsitapii (Blackfoot) count around 39,200 tribal members, of which the approximately 21,000 Northern Piegan (Apatohsipikani) and Southern Piegan (Amsskaapipikani) make up more than half of the tribal members, which is also their historical role once the most powerful and most populous group of the Nitsitapii (Blackfoot).

Canada - Alberta

The Siksika Nation counts today (July 2013) about 6,925 tribe members, of which about 3,790 live on the 696.54 km² Siksika 146 Reserve on the Bow River in southern Alberta, about 87 km southeast of Calgary. After the Blood Indian Reserve 148 of Kainai (Blood) Nation , which covers 1,413.87 square kilometers, this is the second largest reserve in Canada.

The Kainai (Blood) Nation (Kainaissksaahkoyi) today (as of July 2013) has around 11,696 tribal members, of whom around 7,980 are on the two reservations Blood 148 (30 km south of Fort McLeod, approx. 1,342.93 km²) and Blood 148A ( on the Belly River, approx. 2.5 km north of the International Boundary , approx. 19.72 km²) along the Oldman, Belly and St. Mary Rivers west of Lethbridge in southern Alberta. The two reservations today form together with an area of ​​1,413.87 km², despite arbitrary downsizing in the 19th century, the largest reservation in all of Canada.

The Piikani Nation ( Northern Piegan or Apatohsipikani ) counts today (as of July 2013) about 3,629 tribal members, of which about 2,370 are on the 426.99 km² Piikani 147 Reserve (formerly: Peigan 147 ) near Brocket, about 13 km southwest of Fort McLeod and 61 km west of Lethbridge, in southern Alberta. The reserve also includes the approximately 29.79 km² uninhabited Peigan Timber Limit "B" , making it the fourth largest reserve in all of Canada.

United States - Montana

The Blackfeet Tribe ( Southern Piegan or Amsskaapipikani ) in Montana today (as of November 15, 2011) has 16,924 tribe members and an estimated 4,500 descendants who are not registered in the tribe. In the approx. 7,770 km² Blackfeet Reservation (and thus approx. 1,200 km² larger than the state of Delaware ) only about 8,500 Southern Piegan live , the remaining approx. 7,500 mostly live in the USA, Canada or on other reservations. The reservation is located at an altitude of 1,219 m in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains around the Browning tribal center and borders the International Boundary in the north, Glacier National Park and the Rocky Mountains in the west, and parts of the Northern Plains in the south and east.

See also

literature

  • Theodore (Ted) Binnema: Allegiances and Interests: Niitsitapi (Blackfoot) Trade, Diplomacy, and Warfare, 1806–1831. In: Western Historical Quarterly. 37, Fall 2006, pp. 327-350.
  • Raymond J. DeMallie (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians . Volume 13: Plains. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington 2001, ISBN 0-16-050400-7 .
  • Adolf Hungry Wolf: The Blood People. Harper & Row, New York 1977, ISBN 0-06-450600-2 .
  • Adolf Hungry Wolf: The Blackfoot Papers. Volume 1: Pikuunni History and and Culture. Volume 2: Pikuunni Ceremonial Life. Volume 3: Pikuunni Portfolio. Volume 4: Pikuunni Biographies. 2006.
  • Adolf Hungry Wolf: Traditional Dress. Knowledge and Methods of Old-Time Clothing . Book Pub. Co, Summertown / Good Medicine Books, Skookumchuck, British Columbia 1990. (3rd edition. 2006)

Web links

Commons : Blackfeet  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Black Foot Indians  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Remarks

  1. ↑ the area between the North Saskatchewan River and Battle River (the name derives from the war between the Blackfoot tribes and the Cree Assiniboine) became the border of the now warring tribal alliances.
  2. ↑ from the Blackfoot as omukoyis from the Sarcee as Nasagachoo and from the Stoney (Nakoda) as titunga called - are each all these names "Big House"
  3. ↑ since the Siksika and Piegan prevented the Kutenai from trading at Fort Edmonton, the Kutenai Rocky Mountain House was built further west near the Rocky Mountains and thus the tribal areas
  4. ^ Annis May Timpson: First Nations, First Thoughts: The Impact of Indigenous Thought in Canada. University of British Columbia, 2010, ISBN 978-0-7748-1552-9 .
  5. ↑ Nitawahsin-nanni- Our Land ( Memento of August 7, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  6. ^ Tribal Homelands Key
  7. ↑ the place where Calgary later emerged was also referred to as "elbow" in Cree otos-kwunee , in Sarcee kootsisáw and in Stoney wincheesh-pah , later as the city grew, the Blackfoot referred to it as moh-kíns-tsis-aká-piyoyis - "Elbow Many Houses", all names refer to the confluence of the Elbow River near Calgary with the Bow River , which forms a capital L as a result
  8. ↑ Shelly Kay Eli: Piikanaikiiks: a literary analysis of Blackfoot oral stories and the traditional roles of women in leadership. University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada, 2011.
  9. ↑ Linda Matt Juneau: Small Robe Band of Blackfeet: Ethnogenesis by Social and Religious Transformation. ( Memento from December 19, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 1.7 MB)
  10. ↑ other names of the Inuk'sik: La Petite Robes, Small Robes, Little Robes, Little Blankets, Little Robe's Band and even Little Rogue's Band - "Little crooks, rags"
  11. ^ John C. Ewers: The Blackfeet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains, University of Oklahoma Press, 1983, ISBN 0-8061-1836-9 , pp. 185-189.
  12. ↑ In 1846 the Inuk'sik suffered a crushing defeat by the Absarokee (Crow), in which about 50 families were killed and 200 women and children were taken prisoner, the surviving about 30 tipis joined Flathead and Nez Perce, however they had separated from them again in 1848
  13. Jump up ↑ John C. Jackson: Jemmy Jock Bird: Marginal Man on the Blackfoot Frontier. University of Calgary Press, 2003, ISBN 1-55238-111-0 .
  14. ^ Names for Peoples / Tribes
  15. ↑ the Cree called Amiskiwiyiniw or Amisk Wiyiniwak and Dakelh Tsat'en , Tsattine or Tza Tinne - both with the meaning people of the beaver , so they were in English mostly as Beaver referred
  16. ↑ Joachim Fromhold: The Western Cree (Pakisimotan Wi Iniwak)
  17. ↑ The riddle of harmony. Everything has its order - even disorder. ( Memento from November 21, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) In: Terra X: Fascination Universe. ZDF, September 29, 2013.
  18. ^ John Blue: Alberta. Past and Present. Volume 1, Chicago 1924, pp. 18f.
  19. ↑ See Cluny Archaeological Site ( English, French ) In: The Canadian Encyclopedia . Retrieved November 22, 2015.
  20. ↑ See Clifford Wilson: Art. Henday (Hendey, Hendry), in: Dictionary of Canadian Biography online 2000
  21. ^ Government of Alberta - About Alberta - History
  22. ^ Ethnologue - Languages ​​of the World - Blackfoot
  23. ^ Blackfeet Language Institute aims at integrating Blackfeet language into school curricula. In: Glacier Reporter. June 23, 2008.
  24. ^ Homepage of the Siksika Nation
  25. ↑ Indian and Northern Affairs Canada: Registered Population - Siksika - July 2013 ( Memento from October 4, 2013 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on August 21, 2013.
  26. ↑ Homepage of the Kainai Nation (Blood Tribe)
  27. ↑ According to the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development : Blood ( Memento of February 1, 2014 in the Internet Archive ).
  28. ↑ website of the Piikani Nation (Northern Piegan) ( Memento of 2 September 2013 Internet Archive )
  29. ↑ Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada - Piikani Nation - Registered Population as of July, 2013 ( Memento of March 11, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
  30. ↑ Homepage of the Blackfeet Tribe (Southern Piegan)
  31. ^ Blackfeet Enrollment Department ( Memento from December 29, 2011 in the Internet Archive )