Stoney (people)

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Their Majesties greet chieftains of the Stoney Indian Tribe, who have brought a photo of Queen Victoria.
Stoney language

The Stoney (also Stoney Nation , Nakoda Nation or Stoney Nakoda Nation ) are a First Nation in the Canadian province of Alberta . They are closely related to the Assiniboine (also known as Stone Sioux ) and often referred to themselves as Iyethkabi or Îyârhe Nakodabi ('Rocky Mountain People', usually misrepresented as' Stone Sioux '), so they are often referred to as' Stone Sioux 'designated Assiniboine confused. They called themselves (and were known for this by neighboring tribes) as Wapamakθé ( Wapamathe or Wa-pa-muk-kthey - 'Head Decapitators'), as they fought bitterly every intruder in their tribal area.

They often referred to themselves as Yéθkabi ( Yéθka or Iyéθka - 'Those Without Blemish' - 'Those without blemishes').

Their tribal area lay north and west of the Assiniboine on the Canadian Prairie Provinces and in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains and stretched from southern British Columbia and western Alberta to northern Montana and Idaho .

Groups of Stoney

The Stoney are descendants of individual groups of the Woodland and Plains Assiniboine (or Nakota), who fled to the Rocky Mountains and forests in the extreme northwest due to several severe epidemics around 1744. Like many Assiniboine groups, they had often married among the Plains and Woodland Cree and spoke Cree fluently. In addition, many Métis belonged to them as well as some Lakota and Dakota who had migrated northwards .

Some Assiniboins in Saskatchewan and Montana call the Stoneys the Lost Tribe of the Assiniboine. The Assiniboine called the westward moving groups of the Stoney Te'ha Nakota ('Far Away Assiniboine').

The Stoney were geographically and culturally divided into two tribal groups (English division) with different dialects, which in turn were divided into several groups (English bands):

  • Wood Stoney ( Chan Tonga Nakoda - Big Woods People - "people of the great forests") - also Swampy Ground Assiniboine ("Assiniboine of the marshland ") or Grand River Assiniboine ("Assiniboine along the great river (s)") - northern group
  • Mountain Stoney ( Ye Xa Yabine Nakoda or Hebina - Rock Mountain People - "People of the Rocky Mountains ") - also Strong Wood Assiniboine or Thickwood Assiniboine ("Assiniboine of the dense forests") - southern group
    • Wesley's (Goodstoney's) band (lived between North Saskatdrewan and Athabasca River) (Stoney, Plains Cree , Métis, Kutenai )
    • Chiniki's band (lived between North Saskatchewan and Bow River) ( Métis , Stoney, Rocky / Mountain Cree, Secwepemc , Kutenai)
    • Bearspaw's band (lived between the Bow River south to Montana) (Stoney, Cree)
    • Sharphead's band ( Chipos Ostikwan's Nakoda , Wolf Creek Stoney or Pigeon Lake Stoney , often also referred to as Plains Assiniboine , roamed the Kootenay Plains and between the Red Deer River in the south and Pigeon Lake in the north) (Stoney, Métis)

Tribal areas and way of life

The distinction between the two tribal groups of the Stoney was primarily an ecological and geographical one.

Wood Stoney

The Wood Stoney inhabited the forest and lake regions west of Edmonton, from the Little Smokey River ( Osoda Wa-pta - 'Smoky River') in the north, south along the upper reaches of the Athabasca , McLeod , Pembina , Brazeau ( Ožadé Tãga - ' The Big Fork ') and North Saskatchewan Rivers in the south and migrated eastward to Lac Ste. Anne ( Waka Mne - 'God's Lake') and Pigeon Lake.

The Wood Stoney lived from spring to early autumn from fishing, trapping and hunting for waterfowl, small game ( beavers , muskrats , porcupines ) and game ( elk , deer , bighorn sheep , mountain goats ), supplemented by collecting fruits, berries and roots. Southeastern groups of the Wood Stoney who lived on the edge of the plains also hunted bison in the plains of Alberta.

Mountain Stoney

The Mountain Stoney lived in the foothills along the Rocky Mountains south of Rocky Mountain House along the headwaters of the North Saskatchewan River , Clearwater , Red Deer , Ghost , Bow , Jumpingpound , Sheep , Highwood , Pekisko and as far as the watershed of the Oldman River . Their hunting and roaming areas extended even further south and west into the mountainous regions along the Kootenay , Columbia ( Čã-okiyé Wa-pta - 'Permanent Tipi-like Structure River') and Milk River in southwest British Columbia, in northern Idaho and to Tobacco Plains ( Ĩdukabi Tĩda - 'tobacco plains') and Chief Mountain ( Hũga Baha - 'Chief Hill') in northern Montana and east to the Cypress Hills ( Wotawa Baha - 'War Standard Hill') in southern Saskatchewan .

The Sharphead's band (also often called Plains Assiniboine ) roamed mostly east of the Rocky Mountains on the Kootenay Plains and between the Red Deer River in the south and Pigeon Lake in the north. Through her forays into the northwestern Plains, she maintained particularly close contacts with the Plains Cree and Plains Assiniboine , with whom she often undertook bison hunts and campaigns against hostile tribes.

The Mountain Stoney, on the other hand, mostly hunted big game (bighorn sheep, deer, elk , wood bison ), supplemented their food base with muskrats, porcupines and beavers as well as by collecting fruits, berries and roots. Since the Mountain Stoney owned more horses than their northern relatives, they were more mobile and adapted to the way of life on the plains more and more. For the southern groups in Montana and Idaho in particular, as well as for Sharphead's band, bison hunting soon became one of the main sources of food. In contrast to neighboring Plains tribes, the fish remained important for the Stoney.

history

The Stoney were allies of the Plains Ojibwa , Plains Cree and the Assiniboine on the Northwest Plains . As a result, they were enemies of the Blackfoot , the Gros Ventre , the Sarcee and the rest of the Sioux ( Lakota , Yankton , Yanktonai and Dakota ). At the beginning of the 18th century, the Mountain Stoney made peace with the Secwepemc ( Shuswap ) and Kutenai and thus incorporated them into the large network of the Cree Confederation (or Nehiyaw-Pwat ).

At the height of their power in the early 19th century, the Blackfoot and their allies, the Gros Ventre and Sarcee, controlled an area from the North Saskatchewan River to the upper reaches of the Missouri River in the south. In the following years more and more allies Stoney, Assiniboine and Plains Cree were able to penetrate into the territory of the Blackfoot Confederation, so that the Piegan were forced to evade the region of the Missouri, the Kainai retreated to the Bow River and Belly River , only the Siksika could defend their territories along the Red Deer River .

From around 1770 the Stoney had regular contacts with the rival trading companies of the Hudson's Bay Company and North West Company , with whom they exchanged furs , meat and pemmican for European goods (metal kettles, cutlery, rifles, alcohol, clothing). The Hudson's Bay Company established Fort Edmonton as a trading point for the Plains Cree and neighboring tribes such as the Wood Stoney and the Sharphead's band of the Mountain Stoney. The North West Company, on the other hand, established a trading post near Rocky Mountain House for the Mountain Stoney groups . The Stoney were mostly peaceful towards the whites and in the following years offered themselves to European traders and explorers as guides and armed escorts for their protection. The first whites often appeared grumpy and serious to the Stoney because of their beards and mustaches, so that they referred to them as Wasi ja - 'the mourners' or 'the lamenting'.

But the increased trade contacts repeatedly led to serious epidemics. In 1786 , the region was hit by the first smallpox epidemic , which killed perhaps half of the Plains Cree . In 1835 a flu epidemic broke out along the Athabasca and Peace Rivers, killing many Wood Stoney, Woodland Assiniboine and Woodland Cree . In 1838 an equally violent epidemic followed, so that the number of Plains Cree probably fell by five sixths, if not more. According to estimates, around 1780 there were between 6,000 and 10,000 Assiniboine, between 1836 and 1839 around 4,000 tribesmen (between half and two thirds) died of smallpox. The Stoney then withdrew even deeper into the forests and mountains of their area and, according to their traditions, sought protection from the epidemics in the seclusion.

Since all tribes (including the Blackfoot, Sarcee, Gros Ventre and others) had been decimated by smallpox and other epidemics, a balance of power was quickly restored - but the Assiniboine could never regain their dominant position.

Like all Plains tribes, the Plains Cree were also dependent on bison hunt , unfortunately from 1850 these were only found in the territory of the enemy Blackfoot, so that in 1870 the Cree waged war against the Blackfoot, weakened by smallpox; but they were defeated at Fort Whoop-Up (near Lethbridge) and lost over 300 warriors. As a result, they had to make peace with the Blackfoot the following year in order not to starve.

In 1851 the Assiniboine signed their first treaty with the United States and were placed on reservations. In the years 1874 to 1876 Canada, the Cree and their allies signed several of the so-called Numbered Treaties , more precisely the Treaties No. 4, 5 and 6 . The Alexis, Paul Sharp and head-groups of the Wood Stoney signed in 1876 the Treaty 6 and were relocated to reservations west of Edmonton. In 1877 , the Mountain Stoney, under the leadership of chiefs Jacob Bearspaw, Jacob Goodstoney and John Chiniki (or Chiniquay), was guaranteed independence from the British Crown in Treaty 7 of Blackfoot Crossing - despite this, they had to move to reservations west of Calgary.

Todays situation

First Nations of the Stoney

Most of the approximately 9,000 tribe members of the Stoney today (as of October 2012) live in five larger reservations in the southwest of Alberta: the approximately 5200 descendants of the Mountain Stoney today belong to the Stoney Nakoda First Nation, the approximately 3,800 descendants of the Wood Stoney make up today's Alexis Nakota Sioux Nation and Paul First Nation and live on several reservations west of Edmonton :

Wood Stoney

  • Alexis Nakota Sioux Nation (the First Nation mostly consists of Stoney as well as Métis and Woodland Cree, approx. 72 km northwest of Edmonton, along Lac Ste. Anne ( Wakamne - 'God's Lake', the Cree called it Manitou Sakhahigan - 'Lake of the Spirit '), is the Lac St. Anne Reserve # 133, with approx. 61.75 km² the largest and most populous reserve of the First Nation, the second largest reserve Alexis Whitecourt # 232, approx. 13 km northwest of Whitecourt, comprises 35 , 44 km², reserves: Alexis Lac St. Anne # 133, Alexis Cardinal River # 234, Alexis Elk River # 233, Alexis Whitecourt # 232, population: 1,789)
  • Paul First Nation (also known as Paul (Indian) Band or Paul's Band , when Chief Arannazhi / Alexis signed Treaty 6 in 1877, half of Arannazhi / Alexis Band settled under the leadership of Subchief Peter Ironhead on the east bank of Wabamun Lake, this group became Later recognized by the government as an independent band, the group under Arannazhi / Alexis developed into today's Alexis First Nation , Peter Ironhead died in 1887 and Paul succeeded him as chief and led the band in the first critical years on the reservation, hence this one ultimately named after him, the First Nation consists of Wood Stoney, Woodland Cree and descendants of Daneẕaa and Iroquois, the main reserve Wabamun # 133A is about 87 km west of Edmonton, the second largest Wabamun # 133B about 100 km southwest of Edmonton, both located along the eastern shore of Wabamun Lake ( Wabamun is a Cree word meaning "mirror", formerly White Whale Lake genann t), the third and smallest reservation isalmost uninhabitedafter the Spanish flu (1918–1920) , administrative seat is Duffield, Alberta, reservations: Wabamun # 133A, # 133B, Buck Lake # 133C, population: 1,981)

Mountain Stoney

  • Stoney Nakoda First Nation (the main reserve called Stoney Nakoda Nation Reserve (also known as Morley Reserve - includes: Stoney (Morley) # 142-143-144, Stoney # 142B) is on the Bow River between Calgary and Banff , the administrative seat is Morley, Reserves: Stoney (Morley) # 142-143-144, Stoney # 142B, Big Horn # 144A, Eden Valley Reserve # 216, total population: 5,167)
    • Wesley First Nation (the Big Horn Reservation # 144A, near Nordegg, approx. 265 km northwest of Morley and south of the Kootenay Plains, is mainly inhabited by members of the Wesley First Nation, who settled here from the main reserve in 1892, hence also called Big Hom Band known, traditionally the northern clans of the Mountain Stoney settled here, the Stoney call it Kiska Wa-ptadn - 'Big Horn River', population: 1,696)
    • Chiniki First Nation (mostly live in the Stoney Nakoda Nation Reserve, traditionally most of the Mountain Stoney clans settled here, the Stoney call it Mĩnĩ θnĩ Wa-pta - 'Cold Water River', population: 1,706)
    • Bearspaw First Nation (mostly live in the Eden Valley Reservation # 216, west of Longview, approx. 120 km south of Morley and south of Calgary, the majority of the Bearspaw First Nation had left the main reserve in Morley to find work here during World War I. the reserve was officially approved in 1947, therefore also known as the Pekisko Band or Eden Valley Band , traditionally the southern clans of the Mountain Stoney, the Stoney call it Ga-hna - 'Along the Foothills', population: 1,765)

Most of the Sharphead's band, originally from the Kootenay Plains (the Stoney called this fertile, protected and game-rich area Kadonnha Tinda or Ke-don-Ne-Ha Tin-Da - 'Plains of the Winds'), settled first settled at Pigeon Lake , but had to move to a reservation on Wolf Creek south of today's town of Ponoka in 1883 when fishing could no longer feed them. Three years later, they suffered heavy losses due to the measles , 1889 and 1890 they were again by influenza - epidemic decimated down to a handful. Then their reservation was closed, about 70 of the survivors joined the Paul First Nation in the years 1890-1892 and settled in Buck Lake Indian Reserve # 133C under the leadership of Old Man Rain. However, the Spanish flu (1918-1920) raged among them so badly that they had to give up the reservation and finally moved to the reservations around Wabamun Lake and lost their identity as an independent group. However, a few, including Sharphead himself, had moved on and in 1896 had joined the Wesley First Nation, one of the three First Nations of what is now the Stoney Nakoda First Nation. To secure its economic future, the Stoney Nakoda Nation is currently (as of 2006) planning to build a casino , but this is controversial within the tribe.

Language of the Stoney

The language of the Stoney is called Isga l'abi or Isga Owawabi (English: mostly Stoney ) and, together with the language of the Assiniboine , belongs to the Nakoda dialect of the Sioux languages . It is divided into three dialects, the Alexis First Nation , Paul First Nation and the Nakota Nation ('Morley'). It is on the verge of extinction and is hardly spoken fluently by under 35-year-olds (as of 2006). Efforts are being made to keep them alive.

Chiefs of the Stoney

  • Arannazhi (better known as Alexis , also: Nabe Tusahan - 'Cut-off hand', or under the Cree names: Kees-Kees-Chee-Chi and Kiski Chichi ), chief of the north-western band of the "Wood Stoney" or Alexis' band , (signed an extension of Treaty 6 in 1877 for the Stoney groups along the North Saskatchewan River, Pembina River and Athabasca River, in 1880 the Alexis Reserve (No. 133) on the bank of Lac Ste. Anne ( the Stoney called it Waka Mne - 'God's Lake'), until the 1950s and 1960s the Stoney continued to use their traditional hunting grounds and in Whitecourt, Cynthia and the Rocky Mountain Foothills, setting traps during the hunting season and working in logging camps , In 1995 three further satellite reserves, the Alexis' Whitecourt (No. 232) , Elk River (No. 233) and Cardinal River (No. 234) , were established due to the contractually guaranteed land claims of the Stoney )
  • Chiniquay ( Che-ne-ka , better known as Chiniki , after the adoption of Christianity also John Chiniquay ), chief of the middle / central band of the "Mountain Stoney" or Chiniki's band , (* around 1834) as the son of a Cree mother and probably a Métis father, he lived as a child along the Red Deer River near Rocky / Mountain Cree or Asini Wachi Wi Iniwak under the leadership of Maskepetoon ( Maski Pitonew - 'Broken Arm', 'Crooked Arm', later called 'Peacemaker') . Here he also got the name John through a missionary. Chiniquay left the Asini Wachi Wi Iniwak and joined a group of Mountain Stoney, married the sister of Chief Ozîja Thiha ('Bearspaw'). Known both as a successful hunter and trapper and as a peacemaker and leader among the Stoney, he became chief of the middle / central band of the "Mountain Stoney" from around 1850. When Methodists established a mission on the Bow River in Morleyville (near Morley) in 1873, Chiniquay became a staunch Christian. In September 1877, tribes from across southern Alberta - Siksika , Kainai , Piegan , Sarcee, and Stoney - signed Treaty 7 at Blackfoot Crossing . The Stoney a reservation, vaguely defined as lying near Morleyville , was promised, which region did not include the area of ​​the northern group of the Mountain Stoney. In addition, it was required that the stoney farmers become. In 1879 the boundaries of the reserve were to be determined, but of the three Stoney chiefs only Chiniquay was present. The soil was unsuitable for arable farming so the Stoney had to continue hunting, which brought them into conflict with the Kutenai over dwindling resources. In 1893, Chiniquay, representing the Stoney, when meeting Kutenai in Golden, British Columbia, established a hunting ground boundary along the continental divide . Chiniquay was the longest serving chief of his group, († 1906 on the Stoney Nakoda Nation Reservation, Morley, Alberta)
  • Ozîja Thiha (in Assiniboine: O Sincha Stia , both: ' Bear Paw ', in Cree : Mas-gwa-ah-sid , better known as Bearspaw , after the adoption of Christianity also Jacob Bearspaw ), chief of the southern band of the Mountain Stoney “Or Bearspaw's band , (* c. 1837, in ongoing battles against their traditional enemies in the east, the Blackfoot , Bearspaw earned a reputation as a fierce and daring warrior - he would never have missed the chance to kill a Blackfoot, the previous chief , a relative of Bearspaw, passed over his sons and chose Bearspaw to succeed him, since the Stoney had been in contact with Methodists since the 1840s, Bearspaw asked Pastor John Chantler McDougall and his father, George Millward McDougall, to establish a mission in 1873 when When the Canadian government negotiated Treaty 7 with the tribes of southern Alberta in 1877 , Bearspaw hurried north from Chief Mountain, Montana, the southern portion of the traditional hunting ground en with a delegation of two other Stoney chiefs, Chiniquay and Ki-chi-pwot ('Jacob Goodstoney' or 'Big Stony'), as well as five advisors to take part in the negotiations at Blackfoot Crossing, Bearspaw is said to have been the first to sign the contract since But the assigned reserve was very small and also did not include the areas of the northern Mountain Stoney, there were repeated problems and attempts on the part of Bearspaw, together with other Stoney chiefs, to ask the Canadian government to expand the reserve when the Northwest Rebellion in 1885 erupted among the Métis, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwa and Assiniboine, Bearspaw and the other Stoney chiefs made their warriors available to the Canadian army as scouts, † 1903 possibly near Morley)
  • Ki-chi-pwot / Kichi Pwat (Cree name meaning something like : Big Stony or Good Stony , better known as Goodstoney , after the adoption of Christianity also Jacob Goodstoney ), chief of the northern band of the "Mountain Stoney" or Goodstoney´ s band , (* 1820s near the Brazeau River in southern Alberta, he became more traditional and due to his ancestry chief of the northernmost band of the "Mountain Stoney", was known in his youth as a warrior, so he later became famous as a peacemaker because of His friendship with the missionaries Robert Rundle and John McDougall, Goodstoney, like many other Stoney, converted to Christianity and called himself Jacob Goodstoney , the Stoney were the first among the tribes to accept Treaty 7 after the treaty had been signed Goodstoney highlighted the division of his tribal group between traditionalists who opposed living on the reservation and those who adapted to the new life on the reservation sen wanted to try to prevent. Since the reservation for the Stoney, which also did not include the tribal territory of the northern group under Goodstoney, comprised poor farmland, the transition from hunting and trapping to farming was extremely frustrating for the Stoney. Goodstoney died in 1885 on the Stoney Nakoda Nation Reservation, Morley, Alberta)

swell

  1. ↑ Chiniki First Nation ( Memento of the original from August 17, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.chiniki.com
  2. ^ Website of the Stoney Nakoda First Nation
  3. ^ Stoney-Nakoda ( English, French ) In: The Canadian Encyclopedia . Retrieved August 22, 2016.
  4. ↑ Rocky Mountain Nakoda - Who We Are
  5. ↑ Arthur J. Ray: Indians in the Fur Trade: Their Roles as Trappers, Hunters, and Middlemen in the Lands Southwest of Hudson Bay, 1660-1870, University of Toronto Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0802079800
  6. ^ Raymond DeMallie, William Sturtevant: Handbook of North American Indians: Plains, ISBN 978-0-16-050400-6 , pp. 596-603
  7. ↑ Northwest Plains History ( Memento of the original from November 26, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.inewhist.com
  8. ↑ the designations as Wood Stoney, Swampy Ground Assiniboine and Grand River Assiniboine reflect the scenic diversity of their tribal area - which was characterized by forests (Wood), swamps (Swampy Ground) and large rivers (Grand River)
  9. ↑ the designations as Mountain Stoney, Strong Wood Assiniboine and Thickwood Assiniboine reflect - just like with the Wood Stoney - the different landscapes of their tribal area - the Rocky Mountains (Mountain), the dense forests on the mountain slopes (Thickwood), the transition zone between the mountain forests in the lighter river valleys (Strong Wood) and on the plains in the east the Plains Assiniboine , whereby these groups differed in their behavior towards outsiders (such as traders or trappers), especially the Thickwood Assiniboine almost never left the forests, including the Mountain Stoney lived in isolation, but the Strong Wood and Plains Assiniboine roamed far and wide
  10. ^ William C. Sturtevant: Handbook of North American Indians Plains, 2 Parts: 13 , Bernan Association, 2001, ISBN 978-0160504006
  11. ↑ Linda Goyette and Carolina Jakeway Roemmich: Edmonton in Our Own Words , University of Alberta Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0888644497
  12. ↑ Salteaux ( Memento of the original from March 23, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sicc.sk.ca
  13. ↑ Plains Cree ( Memento of the original from July 15, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sicc.sk.ca
  14. ^ Treaty 7 Tribal Council, Treaty 7. Elders, Walter Hildebrant: True Spirit and Original Intent of Treaty 7 , Publisher: Mcgill Queens University Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0773515222
  15. ↑ the term also described a person who had a curse on himself, "looked terrible", was completely covered in dirt and was unable to take care of himself
  16. ^ Website of the Alexis Nakota Sioux First Nation
  17. ^ Website of the Paul First Nation ( Memento of the original from November 1, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.paulfirstnation.com
  18. ↑ The Paul First Nation is also referred to in historical documents as Ironhead's Band (after its first government-recognized leader), White Whale Lake Band, or Wabamun (Lake) Band (after the lake)
  19. ↑ Website of the Stoney Nation (English)
  20. ↑ Wesley First Nation ( Memento of the original from January 29, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / wn.justinparsons.com
  21. ^ Schooling in Paul Band. 1893-1923 (PDF; 7.6 MB)
  22. ↑ Rocky Mountain Nakoda - Our Lands
  23. ↑ Chiniki First Nation ( Memento of the original from January 28, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.chiniki.com
  24. ↑ Myrna Kostash and Duane Burton: Reading the River: A Traveler's Companion to the North Saskatchewan, ISBN 978-1550503173
  25. ↑ Calgary's News and Entertainment Weekly: First Nations casinos a risky business, September 15, 2005 ( Memento of the original of September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ffwdweekly.com
  26. ↑ Alexis Nakota Sioux Nation  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 2.1 MB)@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.alexisnakotasioux.com  
  27. ↑ the Stoney Reservation should be one square mile in size per family of five
  28. ↑ CHINIQUAY
  29. ↑ Stoney explained this hostility with the fact that Bearspaw's mother was killed by a Blackfoot
  30. ↑ OZÎJA THIHA
  31. ↑ Jacob Goodstoney

See also

Web links