North American cultural areas

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The North American culture areas are geographic areas where indigenous ethnic group live, the concept of cultural areas (culture area) of the US anthropologist Franz Boas , Robert Lowie and Clark Wissler due to similar lifestyles in matching environmental conditions have a similar culture and lifestyle. This concept of cross-cultural social research , however, is based on the most recent historical distribution and way of life before the colonization and before the formation of the modern nation-states. 　

The division of North America shows a picture that never really existed. While the European influence on the Atlantic coast led to considerable acculturation and later assimilation as early as the 16th century , the influence in the far north did not lead to cultural adjustments until the 20th century, which called the concept of uniform cultures into question. The problem of temporal delimitation becomes particularly clear with the cultural area " Prairie and Plains ": The North American equestrian cultures only emerged through the European expansion in the course of the 18th century, when some tribes took over the horse and (also under the pressure of peoples of the east who moved to the west ) penetrated the previously almost uninhabited steppes.　

Although there are many similarities, the specific demarcation of (especially very large) areas is controversial because the concept contains too many arbitrary stipulations: Which cultural assets are used to define an area? How is "similarity" defined? Where does it begin and where does it end? What distortions does the European perspective cause ? How does the static area model fit in with the permanent cultural change ? Therefore, the cultural areas only play a subordinate role in science today; for example, to get an overview of the (historical) cultural diversity of a continent.　

The most popular model of the cultural areas in North America comes from Clark Wissler (1912) and was revised in 1939 by Alfred Kroeber .

North American cultural areas

For North America, the division into ten cultural areas has prevailed:

Development of the division

The first division of America into cultural areas was designed by Otis Mason in 1896 . He divided the entire double continent America into 19 cultural areas, 11 of them in North America: Arctic, Athapasques, Algonquian, Iroquois, Muskhogee, Plains, North Pacific Coast, Columbia River, Inner Basin, California-Oregon, Pueblo. After another design from 1899 with 10 cultural areas in North America, he adjusted his classification of North America again in 1907 to the latest findings and now came to 12 areas: Arctic, Yukon-Makenzie, St. Lawrence-and-See-Region, Atlantic, Gulf Coast, Mississippi Valley, Plains, North Pacific Coast, Columbia-Frazer Region, Inner Basin, California-Oregon, Pueblo.

In 1912, Clark Wissler created a new classification of North America with 10 cultural areas: Arctic, Mackenzie, North Pacific Coast, Plateau, Plains, California, Southwest, Southeast, Eastern Woodlands, Mexico and Central America. William Holmes tried in 1914 in a classification with 11 North American cultural areas, which were based mainly on archaeological rather than ethnographic features.

In 1939 Alfred Kroeber modified Wissler's classification. He works out cultural contrasts and similarities even more precisely. This resulted in the 10 cultural areas of North America, which are largely undisputed today.

In 1976 the anthropologists David E. Hunter and Phillip Whitten published a world model of cultural areas that is more oriented towards vegetation zones and traditional land use than older models. The division of North America largely corresponds to the areas of Wissler and Kröber.

The ten cultural areas

Each of the ten North American cultural areas has cultural characteristics that can be roughly summarized.

Arctic

Cultures
igloo

The Arctic , inhabited primarily by the two linguistically related groups of the Aleutian and Eskimo, stretches from western Alaska to eastern Greenland . The permanently frozen ground in this area is mostly overgrown with lichens and mosses . The food of the Aleutians and Eskimos consisted of seals , walruses and whales on the coast . Their menu was supplemented with shellfish , mussels , berries , wild fruits and, in summer, with caribou , which was the main food of the inland tribes. Contrary to popular belief , the ethnic groups , who live in small groups, only lived in igloo huts during hunting and traveling . Their primary habitation was made of driftwood, stones, whale bees, hides and turf tiles. Adapted to the climatic conditions, they either moved in kayaks or in sledges pulled by dogs. The harpoon was their most important hunting device.

Religions

The American Arctic ethnic religions were distinctly animistic ; That is, natural phenomena were considered to be animated and since animals played the most important role in procuring food in these cultures, animal spirits were particularly important. Among the Eskimo peoples, these were animal species spirits (“Inua”), not spirits of individual animals. Above these animal spirits there was often a “master of the animals” as a god-like being (such as Sedna among the Inuit) . There were various taboos that had to be observed when hunting or processing animal products in order to appease the corresponding spirits. The religious cult was primarily individualistic. Only with serious illnesses, hunting magic and taboos was the among the Inuit than angakkuq / angatkuq called necromancer called in as a specialist. Due to the great similarities to the Paleo-Siberian peoples , the Eskimo peoples are counted by some authors as part of the classical Siberian shamanism .

(see also: Religions of the Eskimo peoples and religion of the Aleutians )

Subarctic

Cultures
Anishinabe delegation, ca.1871 - ca.1907

The subarctic comprises vast boreal forest areas and forest tundras from central Alaska to the Saint Lawrence River . This area was inhabited by two language groups: the Northern Athapasques and the Northern Algonquin . Probably the most important tribes were the two Algonquin peoples Anishinabe and Cree . The forest provided the Indians with plenty of food: forest caribou, forest bison , deer and elk . There was a lot of fishing along the rivers and the coasts. Collecting berries, maple syrup, edible grasses, shrubs and roots covered the vitamin requirements.

The sub-Arctic Indians lived in different dwellings, which ranged from pole tents to gable-shaped wooden huts to dome-shaped wigwams . The small, scattered groups knew neither higher tribal associations nor permanent settlements. Power was not to any significant extent centralized to one person.

Religions

Animal spirits also played a predestined role in the traditional religions of the sub-Arctic hunter cultures - both of individual animals and of (protective) spiritual powers related to the entire animal species; especially as personal guardian spirits . While the Athabaskan peoples of the north-west knew no deities beyond this, the Algonquian peoples of the middle and east believed in Manitu , a kind of pantheistic world soul that stood above all spirits. However, this notion was much less pronounced in the subarctic Cree and Innu than in the Anishinaabeg and other tribes in the transition area to the northeastern deciduous forest area. The latter ethnic groups - especially the Anishinaabeg and their relatives - had a complex nature of collective ceremonial alliances, whereas the cult was otherwise very individualistic everywhere. The rites were in the service of hunting and health care. Subarctic medicine men did not have the central position like the Eskimo shamans for a long time. They were usually only active as healers. In the solitude of the Canadian forests, some of the old religions remained unaffected until the 20th century. Despite official Christianization, there are still numerous traditional elements up to and including compartmentalized religiosity (equal practice of two religions).

Northwest coast

Totem pole ( Kootéeyaa ) of the Tlingit

→ Main article: Northwest Coast Culture

Cultures

A tangle of islands, coastal plains, foothills and mountain ranges defines the northwest coast. The area is covered with wild and plant-rich cedar forests (these are junipers ( Juniperus ) and false cypresses ( Chamaecyparis and Callitropsis ), which are colloquially called cedars). The residents of the most diverse language families, who lived close together, used cedar wood for their distinctive carving skills. The totem poles in particular are well known . These are stakes in which the Indians carved animals. These animals were considered personal heraldic animals and symbols of dignity for the owner of the stake.

The Indians of the northwest coast were organized partly in matrilineal and partly in patrilineal local groups , clans . The most important clans were among others the Tlingit , Haida , Kwakiutl and Chinook . The hierarchical structure was typical of the northwest coast. A clan was led by a chief who was in an almost absolute position of power. There were also three classes: the nobility, the people and the slaves. The slaves made up about 15-25 percent of the total population. Belonging to a class was determined by birth. However, it was not fixed forever, but changeable. Slaves were obtained mainly through raids on other villages.

Another important cultural element was the potlatch . These were public festivals with the focus on distributing gifts. They served in particular to publicly confirm the hierarchy of rank. The potlatch was initiated in each case by an important, wealthy chief. It was he who distributed the gifts. By accepting these gifts, the position of the host was confirmed. The origin of this ceremony is probably to be sought in the balancing of the abundant with the needy.

Religions

As with the nomadic hunters of the north, animal spirits were also found in the religions of the sedentary sea hunters and fishermen. At times there was the conception of an impersonal supreme power such as the Náwalak among the Kwakiutl. Sea creatures and fishing rites played an important role in the cult, but they were mostly only practiced by certain secret societies . Every adult was a member of such a covenant, while the individual spirituality was generally only slightly developed. Guardian spirits also belonged to a covenant, not a person. The religious practice expressed itself above all in the elaborate initiation ceremonies that were carried out by the leagues in winter. They were associated with the secular potlach and, above all, had a high theatrical entertainment value for the audience with mask dances, puppets and various magic tricks. The medicine men worked in a similarly staged manner in healing rituals. Collective sacrificial rituals to appease the spirits occurred everywhere, with the Tlingit sometimes slaves were sacrificed for this.

California

Cultures
Maidu dancers with characteristic headgear

This cultural area lies between the Pacific and the Sierra Nevada . Autonomous groups living here such as the Pomo , Salinan and Chumash came from a number of different language families such as the Hoka , Penuti and Shoshone . The geographical conditions range from a forested coast to a desert-like area in the south or in the southeast. The focus of food procurement was the collection of wild fruits, especially acorns . In addition, the catching of migratory fish such as salmon was of outstanding importance, especially for the groups settling in northern California such as the Yurok, Karuk, Tolowa etc. The Indians living along the coast such as the Esselen, Salinan and Chumash hunted seals and collected mussels. The Chumash also hunted deep sea fish such as swordfish with their plank boats called tomol . In addition, the hunting of small animals and deer was of a certain importance for most groups.

Language boundaries and ethnic identity often did not match in California. The Indians, mostly organized in small, autonomous local groups (often referred to as " tribelet " in English ) without superordinate tribal associations, lived in different dwellings such as gable-shaped plank houses or domed or. cone-shaped huts made of grass, bark and rush mats . Meeting houses were sunk into the ground.

The Californian Indians were particularly known for their art of braiding .

Religions

Since the traditional religions of the Californian cultural area are very diverse, the similarities are practically limited to the belief in ghosts without high gods . Nevertheless, northern and central Californian tribes are often cited as an exception to the largely lacking (anthropomorphic) belief in high gods in North America. Such ideas probably came about through direct or indirect Christian influence. Often the secular leaders were responsible for keeping sacred objects. In some tribes, collective manhood rituals were central to puberty, which were practiced by secret societies. In the toloache ritual, Datura inoxia ( large-flowered thorn apple ) was used as a drug to find the personal protective spirit through the hallucinogenic effects. In Southern California, the use of sand images occurred as in the Southwest Cultural Area. The Kuksu cult was widespread in the northern part of California . There were various religious specialists practically everywhere. Medicine men did not have a higher social rank due to their skills, other than personal standing. Some tribes practiced ghost dances in which the called spirit entered the dancer through the ear.

plateau

Cultures
The Nez Percé Chief Joseph

The most important ethnic groups belonging to the language families inland Salish , Kutenai and Sahaptin represented here were the Nlaka'pamux , Flathead , Coeur d'Alene , Shuswap , Nez Percé and Modoc .

High mountains and deep valleys characterize this area. The western parts of the country connecting to the west coast are quite deep. The Rocky Mountains in the east let the land rise to over 3000 meters above sea level. The abundance of water determined the life of the mostly sedentary Indians who lived here. Fishing, especially salmon , was at the center of food procurement. The meals were supplemented by wild roots, berries and game. Due to the extensive fishing, the plateau ethnicities developed a complex fishing technology.

Every village had its chief. During the salmon fishing, however, responsibility was given to a so-called salmon chief. Another essential feature of this cultural area was the brisk trade with neighboring ethnic groups.

The dwellings in this cultural area were diverse. They ranged from earth houses to huts made of wooden planks to tipis covered with willow mats or bark or animal skins. Sometimes the Plateau Indians lived in light Wickiups in summer and in more solid huts in winter.

Religions

The Plateau Indians believed in animal guardian spirits like their neighbors in the subarctic. They also had medicine men as healers. Diseases were often attributed to witchcraft: the medicine man then identified the alleged culprit and forced him to admit his guilt. The Christian syncretistic Indian Shaker Church , founded by John Slocum at the end of the 19th century, is a specialty of this region. It is named after the shaking trance that grips the members.

Large pool

Cultures
Replica of a Shoshone camp

The Great Basin, also known as the high basin, located south of the plateau and characterized by high mountains and deep valleys, was mainly inhabited by the Ute , Paiute and Shoshone, all of whom speak closely related Numic languages . Only the language of the Washoe , who live on the western edge of the basin, belonged to a different language family. The humid climate in the mountains contrasts with the arid , often desert-like valleys. The lower part of the mountains is overgrown with grass. Forests determine the picture further up. The residents found a wide variety of herbs above the tree line. Most of the Indians, however, lived in the lower parts of the mountains. The procurement of food turned out to be quite difficult due to the climatic conditions. The meals consisted of Piñon -Nüssen, grass seed and partly from hunting. Where the climate allowed it, some maize was grown on a modest scale.

Different forms of living were also used in this cultural area, for example dome-shaped huts made of curved branches and covered with grass or teepees with fur, bark or grass / branch covers. The nomadic Indians, who lived in very small groups, spent the winter in caves or rock niches.

There was not only food poverty, but also ritual poverty, a characteristic that prevails in numerous hunter cultures .

The culture of the Great Basin was fairly homogeneous and changed little over the past 2000-3000 years.

Religions

The ethnic religions of the Great Basin were also animistic, as with practically all hunting peoples, but the spirits in general were of little importance. The same was true of medicine men and any ritual culture. This reflects the simple social structure of the groups living there. Nevertheless, the establishment of the sun dance in the 1820s - which the Northern Shoshone and Ute took over from the Arapaho - was so lasting that it still plays an important role with these tribes today. The annual rites, which mainly revolved around the conservation of the plants, reveal the reality of life, because their food acquisition was primarily based on the collection of plants and nuts. The influence of a successful pronghorn hunt was incumbent on the medicine man, who tried to achieve this by singing certain songs. In the summer there was a dance ceremony where people danced around a tree and chanted a guardian spirit. This dance shaped the later Pan-Indian spirit dance .

Northeast woodland

Cultures
View from Algonquin Peak in the northeast woodlands

Huge deciduous and mixed forests characterize the northeastern woodland , which is bounded by the St. Lawrence River in the north, the Cumberland River in the south, the Mississippi River in the west and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. This area was inhabited by groups of the Algonquin, such as the Shawnee , Powhatan , Menominee and the Sauk and Fox , the Iroquois Wyandot allied with them and the Iroquois Federation . The Indians of the north-eastern woodland lived mainly on soil cultivation products , especially corn , beans and pumpkins . Fishing and hunting were common along the coast. In the western regions, the wild rice harvest was of great importance. A specialty of the northern woodland was the use of maple sugar .

The cultivation of the soil suggests individual land ownership; that was not the case. The land was available to certain families for the time of development, but had no owner. The fields were regularly relocated to achieve better crop yields.

The preferred dwellings were either longhouses or domed wigwams . The hunters and gatherers , who only cultivated very little soil, were organized in local groups. The sedentary land farmers knew more complex kinship structures with hereditary chieftainship. In the Iroquois, several nuclear families formed exogamous matrilineage , which were identical to the long house, in which about 20-200 people lived. The peculiarity of the Iroquois was that it was an amalgamation of five tribes, the Seneca , Cayuga , Onondaga , Oneida and Mohawk , with the main purpose of common defense.

Religions

Since vegetable food was very important to the people in this cultural area (wild rice harvest on the Great Lakes, otherwise shifting cultivation) and the social structures were rather complex due to the frequent sedentary lifestyle and the large local groups, the religious cult was also diverse (almost all tribes had diverse Medicine frets) and revolved around the fertility of the soil and the weather. The individual believed in a personal protective spirit that he acquired in a dream or a vision. In addition to more or less pronounced animistic conceptions of the universal soul, either a polytheism (polytheism as with the Iroquois) or pantheism (deified world as with the Manitu of the Algonquin peoples) exist . Individual medicine men mostly only had a function as healer in addition to the medicine associations. The Iroquois had a distinctive mythology and cosmology with numerous deities who lived in a sky of up to twelve layers, with the earth as a disc on the back of a turtle. With them in particular, the traditional religion has survived to this day, despite centuries of proselytizing attempts. In addition, with the longhouse religion, a syncretistic Christian-Iroquois belief arose, to which up to 25 percent of the Iroquois now adhere.

Southeast woodland

Cultures
Osceola, chief of the Seminoles

This area between the Appalachian Mountains and the Everglades includes flat coastal plains as well as hilly promontories and even areas with a low mountain range . It was inhabited by great Indian nations such as the so-called five civilized tribes , the Cherokee , Muskogee , Seminoles , Choctaw and Chickasaw . Another well-known tribe were the Natchez .

Except for the Calusa , all the ethnic groups living here were soil farmers and hunters. The Calusa lived by gathering and fishing. In summer, the Indians of the Southeastern Woodlands lived in light, rectangular summer houses. In winter they moved into round, more solid houses. The concept of the five civilized tribes can be explained on the one hand by their highly developed craftsmanship and on the other hand by complex social systems. Most of them were matrilineal clans organized into totemic clans or local groups. Important cultural elements were thus totemism and to some extent also dualism . Some tribes divided their society in half, called moieties .

The tribes were led by sacred chiefs who combined their office with the priesthood.

Religions

The religions of the southeast were determined by the delicate relationship between man and nature. The world was ruled by an immense number of mythical nature spirits, giants, monsters, dwarfs and tricksters - like the Great Rabbit Manäbusch . People believed in life after death. The souls of the dead stayed in the vicinity of the settlements and tried to be accompanied by the living on their journey to the hereafter. The funeral rites were accordingly elaborate, partly to protect the living and partly to commemorate the dead. Death was not a natural occurrence but was always caused by evil spirits. The religions - like the social structures - were even more complex than in the northeast. In addition to the spirit world, there was almost everywhere a mono- or at least henotheistic belief in high gods, which as a rule was directed towards a sun god. In addition to the medicine men - who were responsible for healing the sick, divination, weather and hunting magic - many tribes had an organized caste of priests who were responsible for the many large fertility festivals (such as the Cherokee Green Corn Festival).

Prairie and plains

Teepee

→ Main article: Plains Indians

Cultures

This cultural area in the Midwest is characterized by a large plain. It encompasses treeless grasslands from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River in the east, from central Canada in the north down to the Rio Grande in present-day Texas . Well-known tribes such as the Absarokee , Cheyenne , Lakota , Dakota , Kiowa, and Comanche populated this area, which is divided into two sub-categories: the prairies to the east and the plains to the west.

The cultures of the prairie were heavily influenced by the neighboring cultures of the woodland. Its inhabitants, mainly the Dakota and Pawnee , were sedentary soil farmers who lived either in large dome-shaped earth houses or in grass or wooden huts. They were organized into clans, some of which were divided into moieties.

The plains were almost uninhabited at the time Columbus discovered America. They were only visited for hunting purposes. After the introduction of the horse by the Spaniards , this changed. The dry climatic conditions did not allow soil to be built, so that the residents were dependent on nomadic hunting. As a result, they did not live in permanent houses, but in pole tents, so-called tipis , which could be dismantled and set up very quickly. Some tribes like the Mandan preferred earth huts. There was no clan organization in the Plains, only local groups. For most of the Plains tribes, war glory was a status symbol.

Religions

The religions of the central grass plain were all animistic - especially animals (especially buffalo, eagle and horse) were considered to be animated and of varying power. They played an essential role as guardian spirits in the individual search for visions . Often there were sacred objects such as the pipe of peace . In most religions there was also the idea of ​​an all-pervasive, magical life force [compare: Manitu (Algonquin), Wakȟáŋ (Sioux), Maxpe (Absarokee), diyi´ (Apache)] , which is also pantheistic among the Algonquin and Sioux peoples was worshiped as an all-encompassing divine great mystery . Since the plains were first settled when the horse was taken over, these religions were relatively young syncretistic “mixed products” made up of elements from hunter and peasant cultures. In addition, minor influences of Christianity can be recognized very early on. All tribes had holy men who were said to have supernatural powers. They acted primarily as healers in the case of more serious illnesses, but also as advisers to the tribal elders. These religious experts had particularly powerful spirit allies and therefore enjoyed a high reputation. They also practiced hunting magic and tracked down enemies or lost things. Individual and collective ceremonies were highly developed in the Plains, ranging from simple acts (such as the sweat lodge ceremony ) to week-long events. Taboos and the use of tobacco played an important role in all of these rites. The most important was generally the sun dance in summer, which was often associated with voluntary torture and which today again plays an important role for many traditional people of different tribes. In addition to various secret societies for men, there were also women's societies that played an important role as custodians of knowledge, for carrying out fertility rituals and in (spiritual) attracting the buffalo.

southwest

Cultures
Adobe houses from Acoma

The southwest consists of semi-deserts, deserts and thorn savannahs, which essentially includes the present-day US states of Arizona and New Mexico as well as northern Mexico . A wide range of different cultures could be found here. On the one hand there were semi-nomadic gatherers and hunters, on the other hand there were highly developed sedentary soil farmers. Important tribes were the Diné (Navajo), Hopi , Zuñi and the ethnic groups grouped under the Apaches .

The soil construction was only possible thanks to a sophisticated water system. In addition to the usual Indian products such as corn, beans and pumpkins, the Indians also planted cotton in the southwest . Pottery was a special product of the sedentary cultures grouped under Pueblo , such as the Hopi and Zuñi. The pueblo lived in solid box-shaped villages made of dry brick ( adobe ), which grew larger and larger over time.

Some of the hunters lived in simple wind screens. Others lived in Hogans (for example the Diné), which were octagonal and dome-shaped, or in Wickiups (Apaches). The hunters were organized in local groups, but they also knew clan associations. They were very poor in rituals , in contrast to the Pueblo peoples, who practiced a complex ceremonialism.

The period before the end of the 15th century seems to have been a time of major change. Important cultures like that of the Anasazi disappeared for reasons that are still not clear. They left behind impressive settlements that are now very popular as tourist attractions.

The large migration movements of some of the peoples who live here are striking. The ancestors of the Diné and Apache, for example, had traveled from an area in northwestern present-day Canada down to this southwestern part of the United States.

Religions

The traditional religions of the Southwest - many of which still largely exist today - differ from all other religions in North America in that there is no belief in animal guardian spirits. In addition, clear influences from the Central American high cultures are visible, especially the Pueblo cultures. With these sedentary farmers, every element of the universe is directly related to the lifestyle of the people, and every tribal member has to take part in the collectivist ceremonies to ensure the well-being of the people. Without this active participation it was previously believed that the entire cosmic order would collapse. The ritual acts are guided by special ceremonial alliances. The evocation of rain was central to the peasant people. The pueblos still practice a pronounced ancestral cult , as it is mainly expressed in the ceremony called Kachina ( Kachina are the spirits of the ancestors and patrons of the people), which is also practiced by the Zuni and Hopi. The Yuma , like the prairie peoples, believed in a single invigorating principle that governed the entire universe. At the center of their ideas was dreaming, which found its expression in myths and ceremonies. Dreaming was absolutely paramount, and the power it conferred took precedence over any other activity. The Papagos occupied an intermediate position between the Pueblos and Yuma. For the formerly nomadic, later settled Navajo, the largest people in the southwest, their world between the four sacred mountains is a uniform, basically animistic system in which every element plays its role. In it, good and evil are united in cosmic harmony, and ceremonies aim to preserve the good or to combat evil, i.e. blessing, purification and healing rituals, in which, among other things, long mythical chants are recited and large sand pictures are made and then again be destroyed. The Navajo as well as the closely related Apaches have preserved many myths of their arctic prehistory in addition to the strong influence of the pueblos.

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Michel Panoff, Michel Perrin (ed.): Pocket dictionary of ethnology. Introductory terms and definitions. 3rd, revised edition. Reimer, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-496-02668-5 , pp. 144-145 (French original: Dictionnaire de l'ethnologie ).
  2. ↑ cultural area. In: Brockhaus - Encyclopedia in 30 volumes. 21st edition. In: Munzinger Online . 2013 (updated with articles from the Brockhaus editorial team; view subject to registration , retrieved from Wuppertal City Library on September 17, 2013).
  3. ↑ David E. Hunter and Phillip Whitten (Eds.): Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York et al. a. 1976. ISBN 0-06-047094-1 , keywords: “Culture Area” p. 104, “Culture Areas of the World” p. 104–111.
  4. ↑ a b c d e Miriam Schultze: Traditional religions in North America. In: Harenberg Lexicon of Religions. Harenberg, Dortmund 2002, ISBN 3-611-01060-X . Pp. 881-882 (Arctic & Sub-Arctic), 897 (Northwest Coast), 891 (Prairie), 891-892 (Southwest).
  5. ↑ Lindig et al. Münzel, pp. 34-36.
  6. ^ Günter Lanczkowski: Eskimo religion, published in: Horst Balz et al. (Ed.): Theologische Realenzyklopädie , Volume 10: "Erasmus - Faculties, Theological". Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York 1982, ISBN 978-3-11-019098-4 . Pp. 363-366.
  7. ↑ Lindig et al. Münzel, pp. 45-46.
  8. ↑ a b c d e Åke Hultkrantz: American Religions, published in: Horst Balz et al. (Ed.): Theologische Realenzyklopädie , Volume 2: "Agende - Anselm von Canterbury". Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York 1978, ISBN 978-3-11-019098-4 . S. Horst Balz et al. (Ed.): Theologische Realenzyklopädie , Volume 2: "Agende - Anselm von Canterbury". Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York 1978, ISBN 978-3-11-019098-4 . Pp. 402-458.
  9. ↑ Lindig et al. Münzel, pp. 62-63.
  10. ^ Victor Golla: California Indian Languages . University of California Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-520-26667-4 ( google.de [accessed March 22, 2020]).
  11. ↑ a b Lindig u. Münzel, pp. 75-76.
  12. ↑ Christian F. Feest : Animated Worlds - The religions of the Indians of North America. In: Small Library of Religions , Vol. 9, Herder, Freiburg / Basel / Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-451-23849-7 . Pp. 88-89.
  13. ↑ a b c Åke Hultkrantz , Michael Rípinsky-Naxon, Christer Lindberg: The book of the shamans. North and South America . Munich 2002, ISBN 3-550-07558-8 . Pp. 77, 85-87.
  14. ↑ Läng, pp. 363-357.
  15. ↑ Lindig et al. Münzel, p. 85.
  16. ↑ a b c Mihály Hoppál : The book of the shamans. Europe and Asia. Econ Ullstein List, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-550-07557-X . Pp. 409-410.
  17. ↑ Åke Hultkrantz: The Traditional Symbolism of the Sun Dance Lodge among the Wind River Shoshoni. In: Humanitas Religiosa , Festschrift for Haralds Biezais , Almqvist u. Wiksell, Stockholm 1979. p. 75.
  18. ↑ Lindig et al. Münzel, pp. 85, 172.
  19. ^ Cavendish, pp. 238, 240.
  20. ↑ a b Lindig u. Münzel, pp. 101-105.
  21. ↑ Läng, pp. 108-181.
  22. ↑ a b c The New Encyclopædia Britannica . 15th edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., Chicago 1993, ISBN 0-85229-571-5 . Vol. 13, pp. 375-379, 390 f.
  23. ↑ Läng, pp. 108-181.
  24. ↑ Lindig et al. Münzel, pp. 123-124.
  25. ↑ Lindig et al. Münzel, pp. 167-172.
  26. ↑ Läng, pp. 66–73, 219–276.
  27. ↑ Lindig et al. Münzel, pp. 211-219.
  28. ↑ a b Läng, pp. 363, 372–377, 379ff, 385–387.