Modoc (people)

Modoc women 1873

The Modoc are an Indian people in the border area of ​​the US states Oregon and California and, together with the linguistically and culturally closely related Klamath in the north, are part of the North American cultural area of California. Their common language, the Klamath-Modoc , forms a separate subgroup of the Plateau Penuti language family . Culturally they were strongly influenced by the northern tribes of the Columbia Plateau .

The Modoc and Klamath (Upper Klamath Lake as well as along the Klamath, Williamson and Sprague Rivers) referred to themselves as many indigenous peoples simply as Maklaks (“the people, the people”), to differentiate the Modoc called themselves (or took over the name) Mo'dokni maklaks or Mo'dokish maklaks (“Southern People, the Southerners”) and the Klamath ? Ewksiknii maklaks (mostly rendered as E-ukshikni maklaks - “ Upper Klamath Lake People”, literally: “People of the Lake”). According to another theory, the region around Tule Lake (as well as the lake itself) was named Mo'dokni E-ush or Móatak E-ush (“Southern Lake”) and the inhabitants were therefore Moowatdal'knii (mostly reproduced as Mowatocknie - “People of Modoc Lake, ie Tule Lake”, literally: “People of the Southern Lake”).

Tribal area

The Modoc lived east of the Cascade Range (Yámakisham Yaina) (“Mountains of the Northern Tribes”) mostly along the south bank of the Klamath River and on both sides of the Lost River (Kóke) , important fishing grounds were the Lower Klamath Lake (Aká-ush / Aká E-ush ) , Tule Lake (Mo'dokni / Móatak E-ush) (“Southern Lake”) and Clear Lake (Tchápsxo) , but their territory extended far south to the mountains beyond Goose Lake (Néwapkshi) . In the north they shared some fishing grounds in the Sprague River Valley (Plaikni) with Klamath and Shoshone (Shá't) (they even lived in some common villages), in the east they claimed a vast wasteland characterized by alkali salts and lava that stretched as far as the Warner Mountains stretched into the Sierra Nevada . The Lava Beds National Monument and the volcanic chain of Medicine Lake Volcano (with its crater lake Medicine Lake) to Mount Shasta (Mehnkshi) (also: Shastxé'nini Yaina - “ Holy Mountain of Shasta”) formed their southern limit.

The geography of their tribal area, volcanic lava plateaus overgrown with sage and mountains densely forested with ponderosa pines , but also swamps, lakes, rivers and streams, shaped the lifestyle and culture of the Modoc. The climate gave them warm summers and cold, snowy winters.

In addition to the Klamath (? Ewksiknii maklaks) living directly in the north with whom they shared the Modoc Plateau, the Northern Paiute , the Achumawi (Móatuash maklaks) and Atsugewi (Móatuash maklaks) lived in the desert in the east in the river basin of the Pit River ( Moatuashamkshini / Móatni Kóke) ("Southern River") in the south (the Modoc shared the Goose Lake Valley together with the Goyatöka Band (" Crayfish Eaters") of the Northern Paiute and Achomawi), known as "Skatchpalikni" ("People along the Scott River ”) Karuk and Yurok referred to the Klamath River further downstream in the southwest; the Shasta (S [h] asti maklaks) along the Klamath River in the west as well as beyond the cascade chain in the river basin of the Rogue River (Wálamsh) the "Rogue River" Athabasken (Wálamskni maklaks) and the Takelma / Dagelma ("Lowland / River Takelma" ) and Latgawa ("Upland Takelma").

Way of life

Like other indigenous peoples in California and the Columbia Plateau, the Modoc were semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers and fishermen (salmon, trout) and had seasonal villages and camps to exploit natural resources year round. Their migration followed a recurring pattern of permanent winter villages (comprised of large semi-underground pit houses), through several makeshift camps (with dome-shaped shrub huts - similar to the Wickiups ), returning to the same locations almost every year.

Pit houses were shelters about 22 feet in diameter and up to 15 feet deep, built from logs and sealed with earth and grass for insulation. Pit houses were built underground with an entrance and a ladder at the top and were generally used during the cold, snowy winter months. The summer shelter was a dome-shaped hut, the frames of willow stakes covered with layers of strong, durable tule mats; later, through the mediation of the Plateau Indians, the tepee of the Plains Indians was taken over (but mostly still covered with tulemats). Like other tribes of California, the Modoc were famous for their basket weaving skills (for this they used grass, reeds and rushes).

In addition to hunting (for forked antelopes, deer, marmots, porcupines, weasels, rabbits and waterfowl), they supplemented their diet, in particular by collecting berries and roots (berries, onions, roots, seeds, acorns, water lily "wocas" and bird eggs) . The Modoc (together with the neighboring Paiute ) were therefore contemptuously called Diggers or Digger Indians by the settlers (probably because they dug for roots in the ground with a digging stick ), this designation is now rejected as offensive by the tribes.

Historic bands and settlements of the Modoc

The Modoc were divided into three regional bands with at least one settlement:

• Gombatwa · s or Gumbatwas , also Gúmbatkni (“Lower Klamath Lake People Band”, also: “People of the west”) in the area of ​​Lower Klamath Lake in Northern California ; mostly Modoc as well as Klamath and some Pit River Athabasken and Shasta.
  • Agawesh settlement at the confluence of Hot Creek (also Willow Creek?) In Lower Klamath Lake (Aká-ush / Aká E-ush); inhabited by the Aká-ushkni (also: Agáweshkni / Agáweshni - “Hot Creek Band”, literally “People of Agawesh”) who had several campsites by the lake
  • Keuchishkeni settlement also on Hot Creek near Little Klamath Lake
  • Shapashkeni settlement in the southeast of Little Klamath Lake
  • Sputuishkeni settlement on Lower Klamath Lake
  • Stuikishkeni settlement on the north shore of Little Klamath Lake
• Pasganwa · s or Paskanwas (“Tule Lake People Band”, also: “River People”) on the shores of Tule Lake in Northern California
  • Settlement of Kumbat / Kumbatuash in the southwest of Tule Lake, its area reached from the lake shore to the lava beds.
  • Settlement of Pashha / Pashka in the northwest of Tule Lake
  • Kalelk settlement on the north bank of Tule Lake
  • Keshlakchuish settlement in the southeast of Tule Lake
  • Leush settlement on the north shore of Tule Lake
  • Nakoshkeni settlement at the confluence of the Lost River with Tule Lake
  • Waisha settlement along the Lost River, approx. 4–6 km northwest of Tule Lake
  • Welwashkeni settlement in the southeast of Tule Lake
  • Wukakeni settlement on the east bank of Tule Lake
• Goġewas or Kokiwas (“Lower Lost River People Band”, also: “People of the far country”) along the Lost River as well as the Goose Lakes and in the Sprague River Valley (Plaikni) in the border area of ​​California and Oregon; mostly Modoc and Klamath and a few Shoshone and Paiute.
  • Wachamshwash / Wa'chamshwash settlement on the Lost River near Tule Lake in Klamath County , Oregon
  • Settlement of Nushalt-Hagak-ni / Nushaltkagakni (“spring water”, “upper course”) in the headwaters of the Lost River near Bonanza, Oregon; inhabited by the Nushaltkagakni (“Head-water Modocs”, literally “people from the upper reaches”)
  • Settlement Chakawechsel / Tchákawetch near Yáneks along the Sprague River on what would later become the Klamath Reservation , Oregon
  • Settlement of Kawa (“spring with eels ”) in today's Yáneks on the Sprague River, Oregon
  • Plaikni / P'laikni (“in the highlands”) settlement along the Sprague River, Oregon; inhabited by the P'laitankni ("people in the mountainous highlands")
  • Yáneks settlement (from Yainaga - “Little Table Mountain”) along the Middle Sprague River in Lake County , Oregon; inhabited by the Yáinakskni (“people of Yáneks, literally: people from the place where Table Mountain is”)
  • Yulalona settlement in the area of ​​today's Klamath Falls (formerly Linkville)

history

Modoc War (1872–1873)

Among the Little Big Wars of the Indian wars had Modoc War (Engl. Modoc War ) under Kintpuash (Captain Jack) and Schonchin (Schonchin John) and Scarface Charley one of the fiercest, bloodiest and most part of the Indian strategic and tactical superbly managed conflicts.

Exile in Indian Territory (Oklahoma)

After their defeat in the Modoc War, 155 Modoc (42 men, 59 women and 54 children) were transported as prisoners over 2,000 miles by rail to the Quapaw Reservation in Indian Territory (later Oklahoma ). A desperate struggle for survival began for them in a strange area with unknown flora and fauna. Spiritually, religiously and culturally, the Modoc had (which leave the spirits of their ancestors and sacred sites had) new challenges: they were not allowed to exercise and do not speak their language their traditional religion and were an aggressively proselytizing oriented Christianity and a only the American English- promoting language policy towards the USA, which wanted to promote assimilation with the ultimate goal of eliminating “Indianism” (concept of the melting pot ). Soon, new diseases, including malaria , to which they had no immunity, spread among the Modoc . When the Modoc tried to get used to planting foreign crops, malaria weakened them. 33 people died in a single year, and by the turn of the century (27 years later) there were fewer than 50 tribal members on the Quapaw Agency lists. The Modoc proved their historical resilience by working hard to make the land productive by growing foreign crops and increasing their cattle herds. To supplement the rations allotted to them, they worked in the border settlements for whites, sold the folk art and handicrafts of other local tribes (they later made them themselves). The Modoc were officially recognized as a tribe at the federal level as The Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma , but the Modoc lost their recognition along with the Klamath Tribes (Klamath, other Modoc and Yahooskin) in the 1950s , ending federal aid to the two tribes. However, in May 1978 they regained their status as a federally recognized tribe. More than a century after their forced exile , the Modoc remained true to their traditional indigenous way of life, which was also a story of adaptation and perseverance.

Forced Settlement on the Klamath Reservation, Oregon

During the Modoc War, the majority of the Modoc were never involved in the conflict and therefore not exiled to Oklahoma - however, they were forced to settle on the Klamath Reservation (this was in the homeland of their Klamath neighbors, including one extremely tense relationship existed). Although the climate and resources were similar to what they were used to, they were reminded daily that they were not at home and not on their own land. They worked closely with Indian agents as well as with tribesmen of the Klamath and the Yahooskin, who also lived there. Like all Native Americans in the 19th century, they were prohibited from practicing their traditional religion or speaking their mother tongue . In 1909 the last 51 tribesmen outside the reservation were also forced to settle there.

All three tribes (Klamath, Modoc and Yahooskin) were officially recognized as The Klamath Tribes at the federal level by the federal government of the USA (so-called federally recognized tribe ) and were profitably active in the livestock, freight and timber industry in the 20th century. However, their economic success was to be detrimental to the “Klamath Tribes” during the termination in 1954 , as they were now recorded on a list with all the tribes that had progressed sufficiently to be terminated immediately (as tribes unceremoniously dissolved). With the Indian Self Determination Act of 1975, the previously dissolved tribes were largely given back their contractual, land, hunting and fishing rights and self-determination. The Educational Assistance Act , which was passed at the same time, and the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 allowed the Indians to have a say in their schooling, upbringing and promotion of their mother tongue as well as to practice their traditional religious practices again. This ensured the survival of the last cultural Indian elements; All of these laws were based on the admission that the Indians would probably never be absorbed in the melting pot of the USA, but would instead retain important indigenous characteristics and behaviors and would only take over some traits from neighboring groups (so-called salad bowl model). After decades of legal battle, the three tribes finally succeeded in regaining the status of one tribe in 1986. A commemorative restoration ceremony is held every August in Chiloquin (Mbosaksawaas) (“ Flint Place ”), Oregon .

Todays situation

• Modoc Nation (formerly: The Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma , own name: Mowatocknie Maklaksûm , descendants of the so-called Captain Jack's Band of Modoc Indians , administrative headquarters: Miami , Oklahoma, population: 250)

• The Klamath Tribes (formerly: Klamath Indian Tribe of Oregon , consisting of three tribes, the Klamath, Modoc and the Yahooskin (Yahuskin) Band of Northern Paiute Indians , also some of the "Hunipuitöka Band" ("Hunipui-root-eater ", Usually called Walpapi) of the Northern Paiute settled in the Klamath reservation and joined the" Yahooskin (Yahuskin) Band ", administrative seat: Chiloquin (Mbosaksawaas) (" Flint town "), population: 5,400)

Known Modoc

• Skóntchish (“Stick-out Head”, better known as Schonchin or Old Schonchin ): At the time of the Modoc War 1872–73 he was the recognized high chief of the Modoc, whose authority seems to be disputed even then, as he was not a hereditary chief . As early as 1846 he led about 600 warriors and was a leader in the first armed conflicts between Modoc and whites, proudly admitting that he did everything in his power to destroy his enemies. It was not until 1864 that he and most of the Modoc agreed in a contract to live with the warring Klamath on their reservation. His younger brother, known as Schonchin John, followed Kintpuash and his followers and left the reservation to return to the Lost River, their former home. Old Schonchin convinced the authorities that the reserve would be divided into different parts, with one district reserved exclusively for the Modoc, in order to remove any obstacle to the return of the refugees. In addition to Old Schonchin's people, some of Kintpuash's supporters were also convinced. The rest, including Schonchin John, fled to the Lava Beds, which led to the Modoc War.
• Skóntchish (“Stick-out Head”, better known as Schonchin John , * approx. - † hanged on October 3, 1873): Younger brother of Chief Schonchin, who was also called Old Schonchin to differentiate himself. Eminent leader during the Modoc War, it is believed that Schonchin John, because of his influence, convinced the Modoc and Kintpuash to continue the fighting and repeatedly advised not to make peace but to continue the fight. In 1873 a peace commission was set up to deal with the Indians, and a meeting with them was arranged for April 11th. At this meeting, the Indians agreed to attack the members of the commission with hidden weapons. Schonchin John wanted to shoot the Indian agent Meacham, but was prevented by Winema, Kintpuash's cousin, by pushing Schonchin John's pistol aside and when he tried to aim again, knocked him out without further ado. Kintpuash, however, shot General Canby, Boston Charley killed the Reverend, while Dyar and Frank Riddle managed to escape injured. Was executed along with Kintpuash, Boston Charley and Black Jim for the murder of Edward Canby. He reportedly declared in a speech immediately before his execution that it was a great injustice, that his "heart was good" and that he had not committed any murder . He asked that his children should be sent to his brother Old Schonchin, who would "raise them for good".
• Kintpuash (also: Kientpoos - “Strikes the water brashly”, called by the Shasta Kä'mpú - “the big one”, better known as Captain Jack because heworea uniform jacket of the US Army, * ca. 1837 in Wachamshwash / Wa ' chamshwash - † hanged on October 3, 1873): Chief of the “Goġewa · s / Kokiwas Band” and most important leader in the Modoc war, representative of the non-treaty faction, he refused to settle in the Klamath reservation and led his “ Hot Creek Band ”south into northern California, joined by several other chiefs and warriors, could inflict painful losses in several battles of the US Army. Due to unsuccessful negotiations with a peace commission (consisting of the Indian agent Meacham, Reverend Eleazar Thomas, three other commissioners, Kintpuash's cousin Winema, her husband Frank Riddle and General Edward Richard Sprigg Canby ) he was led by Hooker Jim and other prominent Modoc warriors forced to kill General Canby. After an argument, the Modoc leaders suddenly drew their hidden pistols, Kintpuash shot Canby, Boston Charley killed the Reverend, while Dyar and Frank Riddle managed to escape injured. Winema was able to prevent Schonchin John from killing the Indian agent as planned and thus saving Meacham's life. After the surrender, the Modoc involved in the killing of the general had to answer to a court martial, the verdict of which had already been determined. Kintpuash took on the defense, but was sentenced to hanging and executed along with Boston Charley, Schonchin John and Black Jim for the murder of Edward Canby.
• Kitchkani laki shnawedsh (also: Kaitchkona Winenta - “female sub-chief”, better known as Winema or later as Toby Riddle , * 1842/1848 - † 1920): Cousin of Kintpuash, her name was an honorary title, as she already a canoe as a girl led safely through the rapids of the Link River and later at the age of 15 in a surprise attack by the Achomawi called together the fleeing Modoc warriors, and they drove the enemies to flight. She later married Frank Riddle, a miner from Kentucky, during the Modoc War her husband served as an interpreter for the Peace Commission, she warned General Canby and the commissioners about meeting the Modoc, could not prevent the murder of the General and the Reverend, Winema saved the life of the Indian agent Meacham by pushing Schonchin John's pistol aside and when he tried to aim again, knocked him out without further ado.
• Bogus Charley (his name came from the fact that his father was originally from Bogus Creek in California): well-known warrior, served together with Boston Charley as an interpreter for the Peace Commission under General Canby and brought the Modoc's approval for negotiations on Good Friday, April 11th 1873. Was not involved in the assassination of several Modoc warriors during the meeting. Later in exile, Scarface Charley was succeeded at short notice as the official chief of the Modoc in Indian territory.
• Boshtinága (“little American”, “half American”, Bóstin Charley , better known as Boston Charley , the Modoc and mine workers gave him this nickname because of his lighter skin color, derived from the Modoc term for Americans as “Bóstin” after the city of Boston , * 1854 - † hanged on October 3, 1873): important warrior during the Modoc War. Together with Bogus Charley, he served as an interpreter for the Peace Commission under General Canby and brought the Modoc's consent to negotiations on Good Friday, April 11, 1873. After an argument, the Modoc drew the hidden pistols, Kintpuash killed General Canby, Boston Charley the Reverend, Schonchin John was prevented by Winema from killing the Indian agent, Dyar and Frank Riddle managed to escape injured. Was executed along with Kintpuash, Schonchin John and Black Jim for the murder of Edward Canby. He reportedly met his execution stoically and only asked for tobacco.
• Hooker Jim (also: Hooka Jim , * ca. 1851 - † 1879): Hooker Jim was the son-in-law of the medicine man Curley Headed Doctor; after white settlers had also massacred Modoc women and children in the “Battle of the Lost River”, he led a group of Modoc to Kintpuash's in “Captain Jack's Stronghold”, where the latter was hiding. On their march, Hooker Jim, Boston Charley and his warriors killed several white settlers in revenge, but Kintpuash repeatedly refused to hand Hooker Jim and the other responsible Modoc over to the white authorities. Unsatisfied with the course of the negotiations, Hooker Jim, Black Jim and other Modoc warriors Kintpuash forced to assassinate General Edward Canby at a peace council . On the run to the Lava Beds, Hooker Jim and Kintpuash fall out over strategy, so Hooker Jim surrendered with his warriors. Hooker Jim was now one of the so-called "Modoc bloodhounds" of the US Army in order to track down and capture Kintpuash and the other leaders. After Kintpuash was arrested, Hooker Jim testified against his chief in exchange for amnesty. Hooker Jim died in exile in Indian Territory in 1879.
• Tchiktchikam-Lupatkuelatko (also: Chǐkclǐkam-Lupalkuelátko - "chariot with scarred face", better known due to a distortion as Scarface Charley or Scar-Faced Charley , * approx. 1851 - † December 3, 1896): celebrated warrior and leader during the Modoc War, Kintpuash counted him among his relatives, but it is also reported that he was actually a member of the Rogue River Indians (mostly Oregon Athabasques, but also Takelma and Shasta) under the leadership of Chief Tipsoe Tyee and joined Kintpuash at the age of 22 After the defeat he was made chief of the Modoc in Indian territory in exile, but after a year he was deposed and replaced by Bogus Charley. His name is derived from a childhood accident when he was run over by a stagecoach.
• Skatiágitko (" left-handed ", hence better known by his nickname Shacknasty Jim , * ca. 1851 - † 1881): Warchief of the “Hot Creek Band” - his brothers, Jake and Shacknasty Frank, fought under his command during the Modoc War. He later surrendered and went into exile in Indian territory, now Shacknasty Jim served the US cavalry as a scout in the hunt for the remaining Modoc warriors. Shacknasty Jim died of tuberculosis on the reservation.
• Cho-ocks (better known as Curley Headed Doctor , * ca. 1828 - † 1890): Member of the “Hot Creek Band” under the leadership of Kintpuash, was an important medicine man and the spiritual leader of the Modoc, especially during the unrest of the Modoc War , died in exile in Indian territory.

See also

• List of North American Indian tribes
• Kintpuash
• Lava Beds National Monument # history
• Edward Richard Sprigg Canby
• Indian Wars

literature

• Ray H. Glassley: Indian Wars of the Pacific Northwest. 2nd edition. Binfords & Mort, Portland OR 1972, ISBN 0-8323-0014-4 , pp. 151-206.
• The Modoc War . In: The Gazebo . Issue 24, 25, 30, 1873, pp. 388-390, 404-407, 489-492 ( full text [ Wikisource ]).

Web links

Commons : Modoc  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

1. ^ Jefferson C. Davis Riddle: The Indian History of the Modoc War. 1st edition, reprint. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg PA 2004, ISBN 0-8117-2977-X .
2. ↑ the Goyatöka are mostly known today as the Yahooskin (Yahuskin) Band of Northern Paiute Indians , in the past often also known as the "Upper Sprague River Snakes" or, after their settlement on the Klamath Reservation, incorrectly referred to as the "Upper Sprague River Klamath"
3. ^ The Klamath Tribes - DICTIONARY OF THE KLAMATH LANGUAGE
4. ↑ further variants: Kúmbatkni, Kumbatuashkni and Kúmbatuash
5. ^ Modoc War Timeline
6. ↑ Rebecca Solnit : Rivers of Shadowys. Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West. Viking Penguin, New York City NY 2003, ISBN 0-670-03176-3 , pp. 101-124.
7. ^ Carl Waldman: Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. Revised edition. Checkmark, New York NY 1999, ISBN 0-8160-3964-X .
8. ^ Homepage of the Modoc Nation
9. ^ The administrative seat and headquarters of the “Miami Tribe of Oklahoma”, after which the city was named, as well as the Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma, Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma, Peoria Tribe of Indians and Shawnee Tribe.
10. ^ Homepage of the Klamath Tribes
11. ↑ based on his status and prestige not on his physical size