Achumawi

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An Achumawi around 1920

The Achumawi or Achomawi (also: Ajumawi , Ahjumawi - "River People") are a Native American people that in northeastern California lived and from nine autonomous bands along the (so-called "tribelets".) Fall River , both sides of the Pit River up to Goose Lake on the Oregon border in the United States of America . The Achumawi, together with the linguistically and culturally closely related Atsugewi in the south (two bands along Hat Creeks and Horse Creeks ) make up the North American cultural area of California. Culturally, the Achumawi were more strongly influenced by the northern tribes of the Columbia Plateau than the Atsugewi, who in turn had adopted several cultural techniques of the tribes of the Great Basin . To this day, both tribes are mostly referred to simply as Pit River Indians or Pit River Tribe due to their tribal area along the river of the same name .

Origin of name

The river name as well as the tribal name commonly used today as “Pit River” is commonly derived from the hunting technique of the indigenous bands on both sides of the river. The Europeans observed that the Achumawi and Atsugewi created traps or trapping pits on deer crossings along the riverbank to catch deer and other wild animals that came there to drink. These pits were so numerous that hence the river and the bands living in its catchment area were simply referred to as the Pit River .

Anthropologists and linguists wrongly use (t) collectively the collective term “Achumawi / Achomawi” , this term is derived from acúmmáááwi / 'àdzùmà · wi' (name of a single band along the Fall River and the middle reaches of the Pit River); in their language acúmmá / 'àdzùmà / achoma / aj'umma' means “ river ” (generally equated with the Pit River) or wàdzùm-à “flowing water” and the suffix wi denotes “people / residents” or “people / Inhabitant of...". So “acúmmáááwi / 'àdzùmà · wi'” or “Achomawi ” is translated as “river people, ie Pit River people”.

In their culture / language there was no collective word for all nine bands (the Atsugewi were considered to be related but separate ethnicity) or a politico-military idea of ​​a common nation (identity), they simply spoke of themselves as is ("man, Person; people ") or íssíícann (“ people ”) and identified themselves as a group based on their common language - and excluded the Atsugewi (these were considered to be related but separate ethnic groups because both languages ​​were not mutually understandable ), sometimes fought the individual bands each other.

Today the “Achumawi / Achomawi” and “Atsugewi” refer to the river, their two related languages ​​and themselves as “Pit River”, “Pit River language” and “Pit River Tribe / Indians” in their own current usage .

The hostile Klamath (ál ámmín) and Modoc (lutw̓áámíʼ) in the north called the "Pit River Indians" P'laikni or P'laitankni ("highlands / mountain people") or later also after the Pit River (Klamath-Modoc name: Moatuashamkshini / Móatni Kóke - "Southern River") Móatuash maklaks ("Southern People").

language

Both tribal groups spoke two related, but not mutually understandable languages, which (according to Powell) form a separate subgroup of the Hoka languages called Palaihnihan , later Roland Burrage Dixon demonstrated that both can be assigned to the family of the Shasta languages ​​and the subfamily Form “Shasta-Achomawi” or “Shasta-Palaihnihan”. Sometimes a so-called “Kahi” subfamily is suggested (also called “Northern Hokan” or “Karok-Shasta language”) consisting of: “Shasta – Palaihnihan” (Shasta, Achumawi, Atsugewi), Chimariko and Karuk.

Both languages ​​were subdivided into several dialects - but the languages ​​were not mutually understandable , so that the Atsugewi were bilingual .

The Achumawi called their language ís si-wa wáó dis-i / ís siwa wó disi ("to speak in our way") or wáó dis-i for short (derived from is - "people" and sééwan - "language").

Shasta-Palaihnihan

  • Shasta languages
  • Achumawi (a dialect continuum of nine dialects, which are divided into two geographical dialect groups delimited by the Big Valley Mountains east of the Fall River Valley) (since 2013 † )
Upriver Achumawi (Eastern Achumawi) dialects
  • Atwamwi
  • Astariwawi
  • Kosalektawi
  • Hammawi
  • Hewisedawi
Downriver Achumawi (Western Achumawi) dialects
  • Madesiwi
  • Itsatawi
  • Ilmawi
  • Achumawi
  • Atsugewi / Atsugé (Hat Creek) dialect
  • Apwarugewi / Aporige / Apwaruge (Dixie Valley) dialect

The two related languages ​​are currently among the extinct languages , but there are several language programs to revive the language in schools and cultural centers, as well as several online offers.

Distribution area

The original settlement area of ​​the Achumawi is in northeastern California in today's Counties Shasta, Siskiyou , Modoc and Lassen and extended from Mount Shasta in the northwest to Mount Lassen in the southwest, the peaks of the Warner mountain range marked the eastern border. The Shasta territory formed the end to the northwest . The Modoc and Klamath lived in the north, the Yana and Maidu in the south, the Wintun in the west and the Paiute in the east of the Achumawi tribal area. The Achumawi repeatedly fought wars and minor disputes with all of these tribes, but there was hardly any tension with the actually always peaceful Wintun and Maidu. They also had mostly peaceful trade-based relationships with the neighboring Atsugewi, who were also linguistically related (both tribes communicated with Achumawi because the languages ​​were not understandable among each other ).

Way of life

The Achumawi usually settled near bodies of water, the villages were only inhabited in the winter months, while in the summer months they wandered through their ancestral territories. They lived in huts made from bark, grass and scrub. The Achumawi obtained food mainly through fishing with traps and hunting. The hunting technique differed from that of other Californian tribes. The Achumawi dug holes on game passes . These pits were particularly numerous near the rivers because the animals came to water there and gave the Pit River its name. Fish and meat were cut up and either smoked or dried in the sun so that they could later be eaten or used as barter goods. In addition, the Achumawi collected beechnuts, pine cones, wild herbs, berries and especially the edible prairie lily , which were needed for their own consumption, but also for trading with other tribes.

Bands of the Pit River tribes (Achumawi and Atsugewi)

The tribal group commonly known as the "Pit River Tribes" included a total of 11 (sometimes 12) autonomous bands (“tribelets”) , but they belonged to two peoples:

Achumawi bands

The Achumawi lived on both sides of the Pit River and its northern tributaries and comprised nine bands (tribelets), which mostly consisted of several smaller villages and camps, which in turn were concentrated around a main settlement; the bands were usually named after the main settlement or the river area (number of settlements according to Kniffen).

Upriver Achumawi (Eastern Achumawi)

  • h̓ééwíssátééwiname ("highland people"), h̓ééwíssáy̓tuwí ("Goose Lake people"), usually: Hewisedawi / Ihewisedawi ("people from high above", "people who live high up [in the mountains]") or shortened Hewise : lived in several (at least five) settlements on the west bank of Goose Lake in the north, in the south from the Fandango Pass (also: “Lassen Pass”) through the Warner Mountains to the Cedar Pass; to the west across the Pit River and up to the Devil's Garden Plateau; in English mostly referred to as "Goose Lake Achomawi" or "Goose Lake People"
  • astaaqííw̓awíname , mostly: Astarawi / Astariwawi or Astakwaini owte (in Atsugewi) (both: "People of the hot springs"): their four settlements were along the Pit River in the area of ​​today's CPD Canby and the hot springs there; in English mostly referred to as "Hot Springs Achomawi" or "Canby People"
  • q̓úsyálléq̓tawiname , q̓ússiálláq̓tawí , q̓óssi álláq̓tawí , mostly: Kosealekte / Kosalektawi / Qosalektawi ("juniper-loving people") or Astakwaini owte (in Atsugewi) ("the people of the three spring settlements to the south of Atsugewi were located to the Pit Area of ​​today's Altura ; in English mostly referred to as "Alturas Achomawi"
  • h̓ámmááw̓i ("people living downstream", "high plateau people"), mostly: Hammawi ("people along the South Fork Pit River ") or Apishi (in Atsugewi): their main settlement, Hamawe / Hammawi, was near the present-day town of Likely im Modoc County, which was once referred to as the "South Fork" because of its location, another eight settlements were mostly along the South Fork; in English mostly referred to as "Likely Achomawi"
  • atw̓ámsini, atw̓áámin , mostly: Atwamsini ("valley dwellers") or Atuami / Atwamwi or Akui owte (in Atsugewi) (both: "valley people"): their 27 settlements were in the high valley of the Big Valley along the Ash Creek and Pit River ; in English mostly referred to as "Big Valley Achomawi" or "Big Valley People".

Downriver Achumawi (Western Achumawi)

  • acúmmáááwi (“Pit River People”), wannúkyumiʔ (“Fall River People”), mostly: Ajumawi / Achumawi / Achomawi (“River People, ie Pit River People”) or Dicowi owte (in Atsugewi) (“People in the valley des Fall Rivers ”): their 17 settlements were along the Pit River and Fall Rivers up to its confluence with today's city of Fall River Mills ; in English mostly referred to as "Fall River Achomawi" or "Fall River Mills People"
  • ílmááwi ("Canyon people"), mostly: Ilmawi / Ilmewi / Ilmiwi ("people of [the settlement] Ilma") or Apahezarini (in Atsugewi): their 13 settlements were located upstream from the confluence of the Burney Creek in the Pit River to a few miles below Fall River Mills; in English mostly referred to as "Cayton Valley Achomawi"
  • iic̓áátawi (“Burney Valley People”), mostly: Itsatawi or Bomari owte (in Atsugewi) (“Pit River People”): their 25 settlements were located along the Burney Creeks in the Goose Valley, had close ties to the Madesi; in English mostly referred to as “Goose Valley Achomawi”
  • matéési , mostly: Madesi / Mah-day-see / Madessawi : ("People of [the settlement] Mah-dess' (Big Bend)", "People in the Madesi Valley") or Dakyupeni or Psicamuci (in Atsugewi): their 11 settlements were along the Lower Pit River ( Ah-choo'-mah in Madesi dialect) and its tributaries, such as the Kosk Creek ( An-noo-che'che'che ) and Nelson Creek ( Ah-lis'choo '-chah ); their main settlement Mah-dess ' or Mah-dess' Atjwam ("Madesi Valley", named after the settlement) was in the area of ​​today's Big Bend , directly opposite on the south bank of the river at the hot springs, smaller villages called Oo-le '-moo-me, Lah'-lah-pis'-mah and Al-loo-satch-ha; in English mostly referred to as "Big Bend Achomawi", "Big Bend People" or "Montgomery Creek People"

Atsugewi bands

The Atsugewi living along the south bank of the Pit River comprised at least two (possibly even three) bands and were (are) sometimes even referred to as Achumawi because of the linguistic-cultural similarity .

  • haatííw̓iwí ("Hat Creek people"), mostly: Atsugewi (in Achomawi) or Atsugé (in Atsugewi) ("people who live in the pine forest "): their five settlements were mainly along the Hat Creeks between Mount Lassen and the Pit River as well along Burney Creek (the families who settle there are sometimes viewed as a separate Wamari'i / Wamari'l band); in English mostly referred to as “Hat Creek Indians” or “Pine Tree Tribe”
  • ammítciname (“Dixie Valley people”), mostly: Apwarugewi (in Achomawi) or Aporige / Apwaruge (in Atsugewi) (“people in the Apwariwa valley, ie Dixie Valley”) or Mahuopani (“ juniper people”): their 12 settlements were along Beaver Creek, Pine Creek, Willow Creek, and on the shores of Eagle Lake and Horse Lake, but their main settlement area was along Horse Creek in Little Valley and Dixie Valley; in English mostly referred to as "Horse Creek Indians" or "Dixie Valley Tribe"
  • wanúmcíw̓awí or Wamari'i / Wamari'l (in Atsugewi) ("people in the Burney Creek Valley"): their settlements were along the Burney Creek up to its confluence with the Pit River (are usually counted among the Atsugewi ); in English mostly also referred to as “Hat Creek Indians” or “Pine Tree Tribe”

Current situation of the Achomawi

Most of the nearly 2,000 tribe members (including some Atsugewi) are now officially organized as a federally recognized tribe ( Pit River Tribe ), which owns several Indian reservations (in California, tribes and associated reservations are historically mostly called “rancheria” ). The remaining Achomawi are each as a minority part of other tribes, which are mostly composed of several ethnic groups.

In addition, the “Pit River Tribe” as well as the other tribes owns several off-reservation trust lands (land outside the reservations, whose owners are the Indian tribes or individual tribesmen, but on the part of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) as the formal owner and trustee ( Trust) in Lake County , Lassen County , Mendocino Counties, and Modoc and Shasta Counties.

As can be seen from the list of rancherias (reservations), most of the tribesmen live outside the reservations - this has economic and social reasons. Most of the land parcels allocated to them are too small, unsuitable for agriculture or cattle breeding (partly leased to non-Indians out of necessity) and the location of the reservations is usually so remote that not all tribesmen can find work in the rancheria.

Pit River Tribe

The "Pit River Tribe" currently has around 1,800 tribesmen and consists of descendants of all nine Achomawi bands, the two Atsugewi bands and some Northern Paiute . The tribe operates the Pit River Casino in Burney , where the tribal government office is also located (in the traditional territory of the Atsuge Band of the Atsugewi) . A state housing project for various social projects enables the creation of living space for socially disadvantaged and elderly tribal members.

  • Big Bend Rancheria (40 acres, Shasta County, reservation population: 10)
  • Likely Rancheria (1.32 acres, Modoc County, used as a tribal cemetery only)
  • Lookout Rancheria (40 acres, Modoc County, reservation population: 10)
  • Montgomery Creek Rancheria (109 acres (441,107 m²), Shasta County, reservation population: 15)
  • Roaring Creek Rancheria (Shasta County, 80 acres (323,748 m²), reservation population: 14)
  • XL Ranch (also: XL Rancheria, XL Ranch Indian Reservation or XL Ranch Reservation , Modoc County, 9,254 acres (37 km²), population in the reservation: 40)

Alturas Rancheria

The "Alturas (Indian) Rancheria" covers 20 acres (80,937 m²) near Alturas , the administrative center of Modoc County. Today there are an estimated 15 members of the tribe and the tribe operates the Desert Rose Casino and the Rose Cafe in Alturas.

Susanville Indian Rancheria

The Susanville Indian Rancheria spans 1,337 acres and is headquartered in Susanville , Lassen County. The tribe with 698 tribesmen consists of descendants of the Washoe , Achomawi, Mountain Maidu , Northern Paiute and Atsugewi. Until 2000, the reserve area comprised 150 acres (0.61 km²) and has since been expanded enormously through several acquisitions. The tribe expanded the "Lower Rancheria", bought the "Susanville Cemetery", then the "Upper Rancheria". Additional land was acquired in Herlong , Ravendale and the Cradle Valley. The tribe operates the Diamond Mountain Casino , the 24 Hour Cafe , the Lava Rock Grill , the Diamond Mountain Casino Hotel and the Diamond Mountain Smoke Shop in Susanville and is the fourth largest local employer according to official information from the city of Susanville .

Redding Rancheria

The “Redding Rancheria” with its administrative headquarters in Redding in Shasta County consists of descendants of the Northern Wintu , Pit River (Achomawi and Atsugewi) and Yana and operates the Win-River Resort & Casino .

Round Valley Indian Tribes of the Round Valley Reservation

The “Round Valley Indian Reservation” covers approx. 93.94 km² (more than two thirds of this area are off-reservation trust lands , including about 1.64 km² in the administrative center, the municipality of Covelo) and is mainly in the north of Mendocino County, a small portion of the reservation extends north into southern Trinity County . The tribe numbered 300 people (according to the 2000 census), 99 of whom lived in Covelo . The tribe consists of descendants of the Yuki, who once lived in the Round Valley, as well as the Koncow Maidu who were forced to settle , several bands of the Pomo , Nomlaki Wintun , Cahto , Wailaki (part of the so-called “ Eel River Athabasken”) and the Pit River (Achomawi and Atsugewi) . The tribe also operates a casino with the Hidden Oaks Casino .

See also

literature

  • Barry M. Pritzker: A Native American Encyclopedia. History, Culture, and Peoples . Oxford University Press, Oxford et al. 2000, ISBN 0-19-513877-5 .
  • Marianne Mithun: The Languages ​​of Native North America . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2001, ISBN 0-521-29875-X , ( Cambridge Language Surveys ).

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ The Klamath Tribes - DICTIONARY OF THE KLAMATH LANGUAGE
  2. ^ A b University Library - Digital Library Collections: Edward S. Curtis's The North American Indian , Volume 13, page 129. Retrieved February 22, 2009
  3. ^ Jamie de Angulo, LS Freeland: The Achomawi Language. , Page 78. In: "International Journal of American Linguistics VI.2", 1930, pages 77-120
  4. ↑ Omniglot - Achumawi (ís siwa wó disi)
  5. ↑ Stephen Powers: Tribes of California , University of California, p. 269, 1976
  6. ^ John W. Foster, Senior State Archaeologist: Native Fish Traps Along the Shore of Ahjumawi Lava Springs State Park (PDF; 111 kB) Retrieved February 22, 2009
  7. ↑ United State Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service- Plant Guide: Common Camas Available as PDF , accessed February 22, 2009
  8. ↑ Achumawi Dictionary (source for indigenous group names)
  9. ↑ Big Bend Hot Springs Project - Big Bend and Big Bend Hot Springs History
  10. ↑ Thomas R. Garth - ATSUGEWI ETHNOGRAPHY (source for indigenous band names)
  11. ↑ Homepage of the Pit River Casino
  12. ↑ Homepage of the Desert Rose Casino
  13. ^ Homepage of the Redding Rancheria
  14. ↑ Homepage of the Win-River Resort & Casino
  15. ^ Homepage of the Round Valley Indian Tribes of the Round Valley Reservation
  16. ↑ Homepage of the Hidden Oaks Casino

This article is based on the article Achumawi ( memento of July 1, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) from the free encyclopedia Indianer Wiki ( memento of March 18, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) and is under Creative Commons by-sa 3.0 . A list of the authors was available in the Indian Wiki ( Memento from July 1, 2007 in the Internet Archive ).