Sauk
The Sauk and Sac are Indians - tribe of the Algonquian - language family . The neighboring Anishinabe referred to them as Ozaagii (-wag) ("people from the bay"). The French and English corrupted this name to Sauk or Sac . Their traditional hunting and residential area was east, later west of Lake Michigan in what is now the US state of Wisconsin before 1650 . Most of their descendants now live in the US states of Oklahoma , Kansas and Iowa .
Name, language and territory
The Sauk call themselves Othâkîwa , Thâkîwa , Thâkîwaki or Asaki-waki (outdated transcription) ("people who come from the bay, i.e. from the water"). The name probably refers to their former home on Lake Huron , Saginaw Bay , which in turn got its name from the Sauk. Often their tribal designation is also given as "people of the yellow earth", this can possibly be derived from the Sauk words Athâwethiwa or Athâw (i) (" yellow ") and Neniwaki ("men"), which later becomes "Asaki -waki "was shortened. In addition, the Fox (Mesquakie) were generally known among neighboring tribes as "people of the red earth" - the Sauk and Fox themselves also used this term as Êshkwîha and Meshkwahkîha ("people of the red earth").
The Sauk / Sac speak together with the closely related and allied Fox and Kickapoo a common central Algonquin language , which is mostly known as Meskwaki (Fox-Sauk) (also: Fox-Sauk-Kickapoo ). Your dialect variant called Thâkiwâtowêweni is closest to the dialect variant Meskwakiatoweni of the Fox and has greater differences to the dialect of the Kickapoo.
The United States government mistakenly viewed the Sauk and Fox as a single tribe because they were very similar in culture and language. Yet their history was quite different in historical times. From 1733 to around 1850 they were linked by an alliance , but at no time did a union develop from this. The Sauk consisted of two politically and administratively different groups. In the early nineteenth century, the Missouri Band separated from the main tribe, was officially recognized by the government as the Sac and Fox of the Missouri , and was given a reservation in Kansas. The main strain was federally recognized under the name Sac and Fox of the Mississippi . Many members of the Missouri Band transferred their affiliations to the main tribe when they lived in Kansas, but the rest remained separate.
At the time of their first contact with Europeans, the Sauk lived in northeastern Wisconsin, where they said they had fled from the attacks of the Iroquois in the Beaver Wars . Their traditional living and hunting area was in the Saginaw Rivers valley and on Saginaw Bay, the Bay of the Sauk . The linguistic and cultural similarities suggest that they once belonged to a tribe with the Fox and Kickapoo. Possibly the Shawnee also belonged as a fourth tribe. However, the Sauk were the only ones to use the canoe , a trait more commonly attributed to northern tribes. In 1640, fleeing from the Iroquois, they reached the opposite side of Lake Michigan south of the Mackinac Strait by canoe and moved to the headwaters of the Wisconsin River west of Green Bay .
The Green Bay region in northeastern Wisconsin remained their home until 1733, when they were involved in a war with the French as an ally of the Fox. Both tribes then had to retreat across the Mississippi to eastern Iowa. Around 1740 the Sauk moved back to Wisconsin and settled on the lower Wisconsin River. Towards the end of the eighteenth century they were found at the confluence of the Rock River with the Mississippi. Similar to the Kickapoo and Fox, the Sauk, as former woodland Indians, have taken up essential features of the prairie culture.
External relationships
The Sauk and Fox were linked by common cultural institutions, frequent mixed marriages, and temporary political alliances. In the seventeenth century there were also close ties with the Potawatomi. Their worst common enemies were the tribes of the Illinois Confederation; later on the Mississippi they were hostile to the Dakota and Osage.
The Sauk initially had good relations with the French, until they briefly became opponents of the French through their alliance with the Fox. They maintained good relations with the English. After the founding of the United States, the Sauk were consistently divided into two parts. The conservative faction was hostile to the Americans, while the progressive faction was more friendly or neutral.
Culture
The most complete description of the Sauk culture is from Thomas Forsyth ( Indian agent ), Isaac Galland (trader) and Morell Marston (officer) between 1820 and 1830 . The records concern both the Sauk and Fox cultures, as both cultures are essentially similar. Nevertheless, there are a few differences that this article focuses on.
Livelihood
The Sauk's livelihood was formed by hunting, trapping, farming and collecting berries and wild herbs. Apparently the lead ore mine was mainly operated by the Fox, but the Sauk also took part in this activity when the corn harvests were poor, for example. With a few exceptions, the lead ore was sold directly to dealers. The lead mines were located in what is now Dubuque , Iowa. Deer, raccoons, muskrats and beavers were the most important hunted animals whose skins were traded. In addition to furs and skins, the Sauk traded tallow, feathers, beeswax and maize. Marston estimated that the Sauk women had cultivated over 300 acres (1.2 km²) of land near their main village and produced around 7,000 to 8,000 bushels (177,800 to 203,200 kg) annually, of which they sold 1,000 bushels (25,400 kg) to traders .
Houses and villages
Like many neighboring tribes, the Sauk were semi-settled and maintained large, permanent "summer villages" along the river plains in spring and summer, where the respective clans lived in shared longhouses or Ôtêwenikâni ("summer houses"), and mainly built maize , beans , ahpenya ( potatoes ) , Wînepitîhi ( squash ), Wâpikoni ( pumpkin ) and Wêshkihtâhi ( watermelon ). The fresh vegetables were either eaten raw or cooked, or dried and stored for later consumption. The nemêtha ( fish ) was also an important source of food. In contrast to other tribes, almost the entire tribe gathered in a common summer village. Carver described a Saukdorf in 1766, which consisted of 90 bark-covered long houses. He was very impressed by the "largest and best-built Indian town" he had ever seen and by its "straight and wide streets". In the early nineteenth century, Saukenuk , near what is now Rock Island, was also very impressive to visitors. The Saukdorf contained around 100 houses with a population between 2000 and 3000 people, some estimates range up to 4,000 people. During the autumn and winter, the Sauk divided into several bands and lived in so-called "winter villages" in the pahkwayikâni ("winter house"), but these corresponded to more mobile hunting camps made up of several easy-to-build accommodations, the wîkiyâpi ("house" or wigwam ). During this time they hunted peshekethiwa ( deer ), mahkwa ( bear ), Meshêwêwa ( wapiti and elk ), antelopes and small game , later - after their expulsion from the Great Lakes area - the hunted the huge herds of Pakwachinenothwa / Pêhkinenothwa ( bison / buffalo) increasingly important. Of course, not all of the buffalo meat could be eaten immediately and was therefore partly dried and thus preserved. The dried meat was ground in mortars, mixed with wild berries and herbs that were also dried, and combined with rendered fat to form a solid mass. This tasty permanent food was called pemmican and was known in large parts of North America.
Social organization
Lineages
The Sauk and Fox were subdivided into Patri-Lineages ("one-line descent group or family group") via the paternal line , whose members are blood relatives to each other (physical relationship). Some large lineages can be broken down into larger (large families) and smaller parts (core families). Children always belong to the family of their "lineage / lineage" - a lineage as a whole therefore only contains half of all descendants, with the Sauk consequently only those of their male ("in the line of the father") relatives. The names of the individual lineages could be derived from clan names similar to that of the Fox. As a rule, several lineages that belong together organize themselves as an independent clan, whose members derive their common descent from a mythical or legendary ancestor or refer to symbolic totem animals ; the Sauk and Fox appear to have done the latter. Such ethnic groups functioned as an independent solidarity and economic community, mostly shared land ownership and often lived together as a settlement group. Since the clans are described as patrilineal and exogamous , after marriage, based on the rules of residence for the couple, the residence with the man ( Virilokal - "at the place of the man", see: Patrilocality ) was prescribed.
Clans
The Sauk were divided into twelve exogamous and patrilineal Mîthonî ( clans ), which were differentiated and named on the basis of animal names (so-called "family badges ") or totem animals . The Sauk and Fox are convinced that the same totem denoted the consanguinity in a clan, therefore clan members were not allowed to enter into sexual relations with one another, as this was considered to be incest . One considered oneself to be descended from a common (patrilinear) ancestor and thus as related by blood.
The chief tribal chief always came from the Stör clan. The most important tasks of the clans and their methawihka (clan members) were the practice of rituals in connection with the sacred bundle , which took place in half-yearly events, so-called Kîkênôni or Kîkênoweni (clan festivals). As with the Fox, the emphasis on the ritual aspects of the clans led to the formation of religious societies.
A list of twelve clans comes from Forsyth: Bald Eagle, Bear, Potato, Black Brass, Deer, Great Lake, Panther, Marigold ( Ringed Perch), Sturgeon (Sturgeon), Swan (Swan), Donner (Thunder) and Wolf. Today there are the following clans: Mahkwithowa (Bear Clan), Amehkwithowa (Beaver Clan), Peshekethiwithowa (Deer Clan), Ketiwithowa or Mekethiwithowa (Eagle Clan), Nemêthithowa (Fish Clan), Wâkoshêhithowa (Fox Clan), Kehchikamîowa ( Oceanchikamîowa ) probably identical to the "Großer See / Great Lake" clan), Keshêhokimâwithowa (Peace Clan), Ahpenîthowa (Potato Clan), Akônithowa (Snow Clan), Nenemehkiwithowa (Thunder Clan), Manethenôkimâwithowa (Warrior Clan) and Mahwêwithowa (Wolf Clan) .
Also Saukenuk ( Saukietown ; today: Black Hawk State Historic Site) near the confluence of the Rock River ( Sinnissippi - "stony, rocky water / river") in the Mississippi ( Mäse'sibowi - "large river"), which in the 18th and 19th century the most important Sauk settlement with approx. 4,000 inhabitants divided into 12 districts, which were assigned to the respective clans: Bear (245 inhabitants), Wolf (410 inhabitants), Bald Eagle (297 inhabitants), Sturgeon (299 inhabitants), Thunder (350 residents), Ringed Perch (326 residents), Bear Potato (462 residents), Great Lake (414 residents), Deer (385 residents), Panthers (234 residents), Black Bass (356 residents) and Swan (239 residents ).
Moieties
There is also evidence that the Sauk and Fox peoples were divided into two halves ( moiety system ) or "divisions" (dual organization or dual system), which in turn were subdivided into lineages and clans as local subgroups (segments). The relationship between the two moieties is both complementary and conflicting. Each of the two moieties has different characteristics, usually one moiety is considered to be socially slightly superior to the other, but correct class or layer differences are rarely found in dual-organized societies. Every member has to adhere to the corresponding commandments ( norms ) and prohibitions ( taboos ) and is subject to clear marriage rules .
The Moieties were known as the Kishko / Ki-sko-ha / Kîshkôha (male: Kîshkôha / , female: Kîshkôhkwêha ) ("the long-haired") and as the Oskush / Askasa / Shkasha (male: Shkashîasha / Oshkashîwiwa , female: Shkashîhkwêwa. / ) ("the brave") known. The two moieties were each symbolized by two colors: The Askasa / Shkasha painted their faces and sometimes their bodies mahkatêwâwi ( black ) with charcoal and the Ki-sko-ha / Kîshkôha painted their bodies with white clay wâpeshkyâwi ( white ). This duality was also celebrated by the two moieties in the often extremely brutal lacrosse (the so-called "little brother of war") and used as preparation for the imminent war or raid.
This moiety system does not seem to have been based on descent , but on a different principle. However, the exact rules about the membership of the tribal members are unknown. According to Marston, the first son of a couple became a Ki-sko-ha / Kîshkôha , the second son an Askasa / Shkasha, and so on. Forsyth, however, attested an assignment based on descent and said the firstborn son belonged to the same moiety / division as his father and the next to the other moiety. In the middle of the twentieth century, the first-born child (regardless of gender) became an Askasa / Shkasha or a Shkashîhkwêwa and the second-born child a Ki-sko-ha / Kîshkôha or a Kîshkôhkwêha . All systems apparently served the same purpose, namely the assignment of siblings to different groups in the order of their birth. Since the Sauk were not allowed to marry a member of their own moiety ( exogamy ), they had to choose their potential marriage partner from the other moiety, so that Kîshkôha / Kîshkôhkwêha could only marry Shkasha / Shkashîhkwêwa and vice versa. Despite the duality-oriented tribal organization of the Sauk, the exogamous system enabled them to strengthen the tribal unity / identity (despite the many clans), as both moities (halves) of the tribe were linked by marriage.
This division has survived to the present day, but currently more related to the political system of the USA: the supporters of the Democratic Party are associated with the Kîshkôha / Kîshkôhkwêha , while the supporters of the Republican Party are associated with the Shkasha / Shkashîhkwêwa .
Political organization
The political functions of the Sauk were carried out by a peace and a war organization. The leadership of the peace organization was in the hands of an Okimâwa (chief) and a tribal council made up of the 12 clan chiefs. All offices were assigned to specific clans and were inherited. So-called criers, who publicly proclaimed decisions and information from the tribal council and were appointed as the chief's spokesman, played an important role in the political system. Every chief had one or more such crier.
Forsyth expressly denied that there were female chiefs among the Sauk. Black Hawk mentioned women who supported his policies and one other woman who was supposed to negotiate the 1804 Treaty with an American commander.
The Sauk had two war chiefs, each of whom led one of the two divisions of the tribe. The Ki-sko-ha war chief had the higher rank and status. When negotiating with United States agencies, the war chiefs usually had greater influence. However, the role of the warchief changed during the early nineteenth century. Men with no known ancestors were given vacant leadership positions in the tribe due to their personal abilities, surpassed the chiefs with inherited dignity and finally took their place. A typical example of this change was Chief Keokuk , who came to power through a combination of rhetoric, shrewd politics and skillful negotiations with the American authorities. He later took control of annual pension payments and was eventually recognized by the United States as the chief of all sauk. Forsyth was Indian agent for both tribes and hoped that the Fox would follow the Sauk in this regard.
In contrast to the Fox, the Sauk only formed individual bands in winter, while they gathered in the summer village and formed a large community. In 1821 Forsyth reported that Sauk chiefs had asked him to help move the residents of a recently built second summer village to return to Saukenuk. Regarding their political organization, he wrote in 1822: “I am surprised that there is such a difference in the nature of the two nations. The Fox have no negotiating skills when it comes to their nation's concerns. However, they are in no way embarrassed to ask the Sauk for help with this issue ”.
Between 1820 and 1830 American influence on the Sauk political system grew. In Rock Island there was a fort and a garrison at that time, as well as the Indian agency for both tribes. Initially, the agency regulated relations between the two tribes and took more responsibility for their internal affairs. The agent had the right to make arrests and was in control of key government services. He also earned the trust of Chief Keokuk, whose position he supported as best he could.
history
The first reports about the Sauk come from the French missionary Jean-Claude Allouez , who described this tribe as "very numerous, but fragmented and nomadic". The last information was certainly wrong, as the French visited them in 1668 in Green Bay, where they lived in a settlement. In the early years of the fur trade with the French, the Fox also moved to Green Bay and asked the Sauk to act as intermediaries in the fur trade.
The Fox Wars
Even during the Fox Wars , the Sauk maintained good relations with the French and secretly tried to help the Fox. In 1733, numerous foxes who had fled sought protection with the Sauk and asked them to negotiate with the French and offer their surrender. Nicolas Antoine Coulon de Villiers the Elder was the new French commanding officer of Green Bay and commanded a force of 60 French and 200 Indians that would finish off the Fox. The Sauk, however, refused to hand over the Fox. Villiers came to the Sauk village with a small detachment and tried to enter by force. He himself and some companions were killed. The Sauk and Fox fled the village after repelling a French attack. They crossed the Mississippi to eastern Iowa without further incident.
The French sent a punitive expedition to Iowa in 1736. By now most of the tribes had left the alliance with the French. The French campaign ended in fiasco when their army was misled by Indian scouts . In 1737 the French government ended the Fox Wars and guaranteed the Sauk and Fox a general amnesty. Only 500 Fox tribesmen had survived the wars of extermination. Despite this new French policy, the Sauk refused to return to Green Bay, Wisconsin, but settled on the Rock River and in southern Wisconsin. By the late eighteenth century, all sauk were found on the Mississippi between the Rock River and the Des Moines Rivers .
The 1804 Treaty
In 1804, a small portion of the Sauk signed a contract that sold all of the Sauk and Fox land in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Missouri for $ 2,234.50 worth of goods and a $ 1,000 annuity annuity. They later claimed that a much smaller area had been put up for sale. In fact, only the tribal council was authorized to sell land and the treaty was invalidated by the Sauk. The US authorities put pressure on the Sauk, eventually forcing them to recognize the 1804 treaty as legal. This severely disrupted the Sauk's relations with the USA. Few Sauk supported Tecumseh's movement; most opposed it. In the war of 1812 they were on the British side. They sent women, children, and old people to join the Missouri band, which had declared itself neutral. The Saukenuk residents successfully defended themselves against an American attack on their village. But military success was worthless when the British and Americans made peace and the British abandoned their Indian allies.
The 1804 land sale was confirmed in the peace treaty of 1816. Black Hawk, who signed the contract for the Sauk, later claimed he had no idea of the terms of the land assignment. The Fox made the same mistake on a treaty they signed with the Americans in 1815. In the following years the Sauk split into two parties. One of them was called the British band and was led by the charismatic chief Black Hawk. It was hostile to the United States and refused to recognize the 1804 treaty. The second group was called the Peace Party and was led by Chief Keokuk, who pursued a policy of reconciliation.
The 1804 treaty contained a clause that the Sauk could continue to use the land until it was resold by the government. Around 1828 the US government demanded the withdrawal of all Indians from Illinois. American squatters occupied Saukenuk during the absence of the Sauk, when they were on their traditional winter hunt in 1828/1829. Some of the Sauk stayed in Iowa. The rest of them decided to return to their village, where they encountered massive harassment from the squatters. These destroyed houses, devastated fields and produced forged title deeds. To avoid confrontation with the state militia, the Sauk moved to Iowa in 1831. Some of them stayed there permanently, but the rest of the British band returned to Illinois in 1832.
Chief Black Hawk
Black Hawk (1767-1838) was a chief of the Sauk and initiated the movement named after him. His motives are still not entirely clear. It was probably primarily the injustice that had befallen the Sauk in the Treaty of 1804 and the forced eviction from Illinois. He believed Keokuk's reconciliation policy was a mistake. The Black Hawk supporters were ready for armed struggle, but did not plan a military campaign. If war did break out, Black Hawk could count on the help of the Winnebago , Potawatomi and even the British. His actions were in part directed by Wabokieshiek , a Winnebago visionary, and he may feel himself to be the successor of Tecumseh. Economic reasons could also have played a role, as the last few years with very difficult living conditions in Iowa had been catastrophic for the Sauk.
The British band crossed the Mississippi and moved up the Rock River without incident. The Illinois state government considered this to be an invasion and Governor John Reynolds called up militia troops . This began the so-called Black Hawk War (1832), the last Indian war east of the Mississippi. The vanguard of the militia reached the Sauk camp on May 15, 1832. Black Hawk knew he could do nothing without allies. He sent a small delegation to meet the Americans to negotiate the Sauk's withdrawal. Due to a misunderstanding, the emissaries were attacked and some were killed. The survivors, pursued by a disorderly horde of rabble, fled back to the camp. In the Battle of Sycamore Creek , over 200 militiamen were routed by fewer than 40 Sauk. The Sauk then moved further up the Rock River into southern Wisconsin.
There they set up a camp, from which they launched raids on neighboring settlements. They were supported by warriors from the Potawatomi and Winnebago. Given the poor food situation and the advance of a US Army, Black Hawk decided to return to Iowa along the Wisconsin River. There they were attacked by the Americans. While women and children crossed the river, the warriors brought up the rear and were able to repel the attack. They also crossed the river when it was dark. The Sauk then split into two groups. The first group, predominantly women, children, and the elderly, moved on down the Wisconsin River to reach the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien . There they were partially killed or overpowered by soldiers and the rest surrendered. They were taken prisoner at Fort Crawford .
The second group moved through a hilly area in southwestern Wisconsin, closely followed by American militiamen. When they reached the Mississippi on July 20, 1832 at the mouth of the Bad Ax River , they were expected by the gunboat "Warrier". The Sauk wanted to surrender, but the commandant of the gunboat allegedly got a wrong translation from the interpreter and gave the order to fire. At the same time, an American unit under Colonel Zachary Taylor approached and attacked from the east. The Sauk got between two fronts and suffered heavy losses. The survivors were taken prisoner and were also taken to Fort Crawford. Of the 2,000 or so Sauk who crossed the Mississippi in early May, only 400 tribesmen survived.
Moving to reservations
Although most of the Sauk remained in Iowa during the Black Hawk War, the United States accused the entire tribe of "baseless aggression" and demanded the cession of more tribal land as compensation. In 1836 there was another cession of land and in 1842 the Sauk ceded all of their land in Iowa to the United States.
In the meantime the tribal unit had steadily dissolved. Due to the rivalry between Keokuk and the hereditary chief Hardfish , two parties formed within the tribe. Keokuk had been installed as chief by the Americans and his alliance with the agency made his position unassailable. All annual payments from the land sales, which were the main income of the Sauk, went through and were administered by Keokuk. The population was falling rapidly. The historically smaller tribe of the Fox now had more members than the Sauk. By 1846 part of the Sauk had moved to a reservation south of the city of Topeka in Kansas. However, many tribesmen refused and hid in the surrounding forests. Fort Des Moines soldiers tracked them down, but couldn't find them all.
The Indian agents used by the USA were sometimes incompetent, corrupt or both. The hereditary chief Mokohoko was now the leader of the conservative Sauk, while the chief of the progressive party was replaced by Keokuk's son Moses. Under pressure from the settlers, the Sauk signed a deal selling the Kansas reservation and agreeing to move to Oklahoma. Part of the Sauk moved to Oklahoma between 1867 and 1869. Mokohoko's band refused until 1886 and were forcibly relocated by the army. In 1890, the reserve was divided into individual lots, with the excess later being sold or leased to American settlers.
In 1950 there were 996 Sauk tribesmen in Oklahoma, while 129 descendants of the Missouri Band still lived in Kansas. Very little is known about the whereabouts of the remaining Sauk in Kansas. They likely assimilated early and adapted to the American way of life. The conservative Sauk may have joined the Pan-Indian movement .
The Sauk of Oklahoma retained much of their traditional culture until the early twentieth century, but this was followed by rapid acculturation . By 1960 there were still a number of conservative families practicing rituals around the sacred bundle. The only widespread ceremony was the annual pow wow with essential elements of the former drum society rituals . In many ways, this was the tribe's premier annual event. The loss of knowledge of traditional rituals when the tribe shrank to a few hundred, as well as a subsequent increase in population, led to a drastic shortage of names. As a result, the clans no longer had any groups of names determined by their origin.
The 2200 descendants of the Blackhawk and Keokuk bands, united in the Sac and Fox Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma , were reorganized under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act in 1936. The Sauk got an elected chief and management.
Demographics
The Sauk population's estimates vary so widely that their reliability is very low. Pierre Joseph Céloron estimated their population to be 600 in 1736, while Jonathan Carver reported 1200 people living in their main village in the same period. According to Marston, around 3,000 Sauk lived in 1820, and two years later Forsyth gave 4,000 tribesmen. In the report of the Commission of Indian Affairs of 1838 2100 Sauk were mentioned and in 1845 Sauk and Fox together numbered 2200 people. After that the population shrank more and more; around 1870 there were 627 and in 1884 only 450 Sauk were counted. The US census of 2000 shows the Sac and Fox Nation of Oklahoma 533 members.
Today's Sauk and Fox tribes
Today three tribes are officially recognized at the federal level. Most of the Sauk descendants can be found in the Sac and Fox Nation of Oklahoma :
- Sac and Fox Nation of Oklahoma , proper name: Sakiwaki , other variants: Thâkîwa or Othâkîwa (administrative seat: Stroud (Sauk name: Shtowâteki), Oklahoma , their reserve area includes areas of the counties: Lincoln , Payne and Pottawatomie , tribal members: 3,794- mostly Sauk , Languages: American English, Sauk)
- Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska (formerly Sac and Fox of the Missouri Band ), proper name: Nemahahaki or Nîmahâha ("Nemaha [County] Sauk") (administrative seat: Reserve , Kansas, which includes the Sac and Fox Reservation established in 1836 approx. 61.226 km² of land in southeastern Richardson County , Nebraska and northeastern Brown County , Kansas , their tribal name is derived from the Nemaha Counties, tribal members: 442 - mostly Sauk, languages: American English, Sauk, Fox)
- Sac and Fox Tribe of the Mississippi in Iowa , proper name: Meskwaki Nation (administrative seat: Tama , Iowa , its reserve area covers approx. 28 km², tribe members: 1,300 - mostly Fox (Meskwaki), the Sauk resident here call themselves Yochikwîka ("Northern Sauk ") or simply Êshkwîha (" member of the Fox / Meskwaki "), languages: American English, Sauk, Meskwaki).
Personalities
- Makataime Shekiakiak (Black Sparrowhawk) : Chief, politician
- Jim Thorpe : Decathlon and pentathlon Olympic champion, professional footballer, Sauk name Wa-Tho-Huk (= luminous path)
See also
literature
- Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians . Volume 15: Northeast. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC 1978, ISBN 0-16-004575-4 .
- Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied : Journey to Inner North America from 1832 to 1834 . With illustrations by Karl Bodmer . 2 volumes (1840–1841). Koblenz (reprint by L. Borowsky, Munich 1979).
Web links
- Sac and Fox Culture and History Links (English)
- Homepage of the Sac and Fox Tribe of the Mississippi in Iowa / Meskwaki Nation - the Meskwaki
- Homepage of the Sac and Fox Nation (of Oklahoma) - the Thakiwaki or Sa ki wa ki
- Homepage of the Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska - the Ne ma ha ha ki
Individual evidence
- ^ Meskwaki-Sauk Color Words
- ↑ Meskwaki Settlement School - Meskwakiatoweni (Meskwaki Language)
- ↑ a b c d e Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians . Volume 15: Northeast. P. 648.
- ↑ a b c d e f Sauk and Fox History , accessed February 10, 2013.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 15: Northeast. Pp. 649-650.
- ↑ in American English the term "elk" means the wapiti, the elk is called "moose"; The Sauk did not differentiate between these two animal species, only in the present day they adapted the American name for the elk as Môthwa
- ^ Gordon Whittaker: A Concise Dictionary of the Sauk Language
- ^ The Decolonial Atlas - St. Louis in the Fox Language
- ↑ »The moieties can be a mere classificatory device by which people are divided into one or the other category, or a group division, whereby society is divided into two groups for a specific purpose or for several purposes. The dichotomy can be based on descent or on some other principle (e.g. 'winter and summer' people, 'east and west' people, 'red and black' people) ”(VIVELO 1981: p.230 Overall, there is quite a considerable variation in the forms, functions, and social roles performed by moities.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 15: Northeast. Pp. 651/652.
- ↑ a b c d e Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 15: Northeast. Pp. 653/654.
- ↑ US Census 2000 (PDF; 141 kB), accessed on February 13, 2013.