Jicarilla
The Jicarilla (English pronunciation: "Hee-ka-re-a" or "hick-ah-REE-uh", Spanish: "small basket"), officially today Jicarilla Apache Nation , are a tribal group of the Apaches in the southwest of the United States States and include cultural - together with the Mescalero , Chiricahua , Lipan , and Kiowa Apache (Plains Apache) - to the Eastern Apache (engl. Eastern Apache ).
Today the approx. 3,403 tribal members live as federally recognized tribe in the approx. 2,920 km² large Jicarilla reservation northwest of Santa Fe in New Mexico with the administrative center in Dulce (Lóosi) , their traditional tribal area originally comprising around 200,000 km² (50 million acres ) .
language
Their language, the Jicarilla or Abáachi , Abáachi mizaa , belongs - together with the Lipan Apache and the Plains Apache (Kiowa Apache or Naishan) - to the eastern branch of the South Apache languages of the Athapaskan language from the Na-Dené language family . (See: Mithun (1999) and Campbell (1997)). According to Hoijer and Opler, however, the Plains Apache differs so far from all Apache languages that the latter together form the southwestern group and the language of the Kiowa Apache is the only member of the so-called Plains group.
In 1990, of around 1,800 Jicarilla, 812 spoke their mother tongue ; According to a census in 2000, there are still around 300 native speakers and about the same number (or slightly more) so-called half-speakers / semi-speakers who understand the language but rarely communicate with it in everyday life, but they use it as well “Mistakes” that are immediately apparent to a native speaker (Victor Golla, Atlas of the World's Languages 2007).
With currently (2010) still only approx. 300 native speakers and approx. 300 half-speakers, their language is considered to be “definitely endangered” or “seriously endangered” among the threatened languages , as the majority of the Jicarilla use language policy in the United States Language change to the dominant majority language today mostly only American English is used in everyday life . Thus it is like many other minority languages from language death threat.
Names
The Jicarilla called themselves T'Inde , Dinde or Didé , which literally simply means “people”; they also referred to themselves as Haisndayin ("people who came out of the underworld"), because they believed that they were the only descendants of the first people who came to earth from the underworld. Today, however, they mostly refer to themselves in English as Apache or Abáachi , an adaptation of the English / Spanish term.
From the related - but mostly hostile - Diné (Navajo) in the west and the likewise hostile Mescalero Apache in the south and Lipan Apache in the east, the Jicarilla Kinya-Inde ("people who live in permanent houses") were called; mostly the Diné (Navajo) referred to them as Beehai ("Always Winter People").
Other names for the Jicarilla Apache: Vaquero Apache or Vaqueros, Querechos, Carlanes, Calchufines, Apaches de Cuartelejo, Quinia Apache (Spanish adaptation of Kinya-Inde), Llañeros.
residential area
The Jicarilla lived as semi-nomads from farming, collecting wild plants and as hunters in northeast New Mexico , in southern Colorado , in northwest Texas, as well as in Nebraska and Kansas . In the 18th century, however, the Jicarilla were driven from the plains by the Comanche and Ute , crossed the Rio Grande and sought refuge in the mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, as well as the pueblo . Some groups in eastern Colorado, New Mexico, northwest Texas, and western Oklahoma continued to hunt and hunt bison in the plains. According to the tradition of the Jicarilla, their land was bounded by the four sacred rivers: the Arkansas River , the Canadian River , the Rio Grande and the Rio Pecos . Today they live in the Jicarilla Reservation, which is about 2,920 km² and is northwest of Santa Fe in New Mexico.
Groups of the Jicarilla
From around 1750, after the almost complete loss of their Plains areas to the Comanche, the Jicarilla divided culturally and geographically into two bands ( English " tribal groups ") and became allies of the Northern Pueblo peoples and two bands of the Southern Ute , theirs former enemies:
- Olleros (span: "potter") or Sáidìndé , Saitinde ("sand people" or "sand mountain people"), also Hoyeros ("people of the wooded mountain valleys"), also Northern Jicarilla ("Northern Jicarilla")
- sought refuge in the Rocky Mountains west of the Rio Grande in New Mexico and Colorado with the sedentary Pueblo peoples of the Taos and Picuris (and later the Spaniards) and took over the pottery and agriculture from them, had important plantings along the Arkansas River , Its tributaries, the Rio Chama , Canadian River and the upper reaches of the San Juan River , soon settled in pueblo-like villages in the Taos Valley and Chama River Valley - such as the Ranchos de Taos near the Sangre de Cristo Range were south to the area around Meeting Santa Fe was able to supplement their livelihood by selling clay pots and basketry as well as agricultural products - in addition to hunting - some olleros remained semi-nomads and retreated further into the mountains, e.g. B. to the San Juan Mountains ; The closest allies were the Kahpota (Capote) Band of the Southern Ute and the Pueblo peoples of Ohkay Owingeh (San Juan) and Santa Clara (6 local groups)
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James Mooney (1897) was able to identify two local groups:
- Dachizhozhin or Nachizhozihn ("rebels", "renegades") (in the area of the San Juan Mountains , Tusas Range, in the Chama Valley and in the area of today's Jicarilla Reservation) and
- Saitinde (Area around what is now Española in Rio Arriba County along the Rio Grande, Rio Chama and Rio Santa Cruz in the Jemez Mountains and the Sangre De Cristo Mountains in northern New Mexico)
- Llañeros (span: "inhabitants of the plains (plains)") or Gùgàhén , Gulgahén , Guhlkainde , Kolkhahin ("people on the plains (plains)"), also Eastern Jicarilla ("Eastern Jicarilla")
- continued to live as nomads east of the Rio Grande on the Southern Plains from today's Trinidad on the Purgatoire River in southeastern Colorado to Las Vegas on the Gallinas River in northeastern New Mexico - where the tribal areas of the Mescalero Apache began and roamed eastward to Texas for bison hunt and Oklahoma Panhandle along the upper reaches of the Canadian and Cimarron Rivers in tipis ( called kozhan ), in winter they lived in the mountains between the Canadian River and the Rio Grande, camped and traded near the Picuris Pueblo, Pecos Pueblo and Taos Pueblo; The closest allies were the Mahgrahch (Muache) band of the Southern Ute or Taos-Ute and the Pueblo peoples of Taos and Picuris . (8 local groups)
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James Mooney (1897) was able to identify three more local groups:
- Apatsiltizhihi ("Black Apache") (area around today's Mora in Mora County in northeast New Mexico),
- Golkahin (along the Canadian River and east of Manzano in Torrance County to the Galisteo Basin in northeast New Mexico, Canadian River and Manzano District) and
- Ketsilind ("People of Rio Chiquito Ruin", south of Taos) (area around Ute Park and Cimarron and Ocate and Ocate Peak in Colfax County , Cimarron River District )
Together with the Southern Ute and so-called Eight Northern Indian Pueblos ( Nambé , Ohkay Owingeh (San Juan) , Picuris , Pojoaque , San Ildefonso , Santa Clara , Taos and Tesuque ) as well as the Spaniards, the Olleros and Llañeros fought them as Inda ( "Enemies") denoted tribes of the Southern Plains - the enemy Comanche, Kiowa, Kiowa Apache, Southern Arapaho, and Southern Cheyenne.
Socio-political organization
Like most Apaches , the Jicarilla Apache were not organized centrally and had no central authority such as that of a chief over the entire tribe or for the two bands.
The smallest organizational unit was the small family living in a Wickiup or Tipi ( called kowa ) , which together with other mostly related kowa (small families) formed a matrilocal and matrilineal extended family ( called Gotah , English: Extended family ). These extended families consisted of the grandparents, parents, unmarried sons, married daughters and their husbands and children; the individual kowas of the small families of the respective Gotah are usually centered in one place. Several or only one large, powerful Gotah could live together in a settlement (Spanish: ranchería ) . Since the families were organized both matrilocally and matrilinearly, the future husband had to leave his own family and move in with his wife's family. In addition, he was now expected to take care of his wife's entire Gotah . Since the children from this connection belonged to the woman's family ( lineage ) in terms of inheritance law and socially , the maternal uncle had a particularly strong say and responsibility in bringing up the children. If his wife died, the widower was expected to marry an unmarried or already widowed sister of his wife ( Sororat ); thus he was still tied to the family as a worker as well as a protector. However, should the marriage fail (which was not so rare and could be accomplished by both sides), the man had to leave the woman and her Gotah and join another group - the children, however, stayed with his ex-wife's family.
Several mostly related Gotah (large families) in turn formed local groups (English local groups or local bands ), which jointly claimed hunting and collecting areas. Especially in summer (for organizing a hunt and collecting wild fruits , wild plants and roots), in autumn (for processing and preserving the game and the berries and plants that have been collected ) and in winter (for mutual protection and because of cultural / religious ceremonies) individual local groups came together. The local groups - sometimes also individual large Gotahs - undertook (mostly in spring and late autumn) raids or so-called raids (called in Apache: to search out enemy property ) against enemy tribes, Spaniards, Mexicans and Americans, but these ventures included usually between 10 and 30 warriors under the leadership of a respected warrior who did not necessarily have to be a chief; In the opinion of the Apaches, the leader of a raid or war expedition usually had special spiritual powers and forces that enabled him to do so. If the leader has only been appointed on the basis of his character, war experience, foresight and authority and has no special powers, a shaman usually joins him. Many famous leaders of the Apaches were therefore also shamans (see Geronimo ) or had special powers or powers (see Nana ).
The highest organizational and political unit was ultimately formed by the two geographical-cultural bands (groups) - the Olleros and Llañeros , each of which consisted of several local groups. If a major campaign or an important ritual meeting or ceremony was planned, all local groups of the respective bands (groups) came together. Revenge and war campaigns (called in Apache: to take death from an enemy ) to retaliate for an enemy attack suffered or to avenge the warriors killed during a raid could often include between 100 and 200 warriors; these were usually performed by one or more local groups (rarely by the whole band). In contrast to raids, the aim here was to kill or abduct as many enemies as possible; the campaigns were usually led by chiefs or shamans.
History and way of life
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Way of life
More than other Apaches, the Jicarilla were shaped by both the Pueblo culture and the Plains culture .
Here, the Olleros took over from the Pueblo the sedentary, agriculture-based way of life as well as pottery and many other arts and crafts. The olleros grew various fruits on their fields, sometimes with irrigation systems, such as pumpkins (Sqash and Pumpkin), cantaloupe melons , beans , peas , tobacco , maize and later, through the intermediation of the Spaniards, wheat . The most important plant, maize, was strung on strings, dried and buried in storerooms to serve as food for winter and for new seeds in spring. The largest fields extended here along the upper Arkansas River. Like other Apaches, the olleros wore their hair tied back with a shawl (the bandera ) and shoulder length. On military campaigns they also often wore a small leather bonnet decorated with embroidery with eagle or turkey feathers (similar to the war bonnets of the Western Apaches and Chiricahua Apache).
The Llaneros , however, took on many cultural aspects of the Plains Indians , such as the personal individual vision quest , the war and victory dance, wore leggings as well as the usual on the Plains Warbonnet (which was not as opulent as that of the Lakota or Cheyenne ). Both groups wore plain low moccasins .
The two groups of the Jicarilla met regularly to exchange goods and to undertake joint raids and wars. The olleros supplied field crops and pottery, the Llañeros antelope and bison meat and hides. In armed forces, the wild relatives , the Llañeros, often took the lead, as they had been tried and tested in the constant power struggles over the plains, which the Comanche saw as their hunting grounds.
history
The semi-nomadic groups of the Jicarilla on the plains , tied to one place for a long time by their seasonal agriculture, were easier to find and more vulnerable to possible enemies. With the introduction of the horse, the various Jicarilla, Mescalero and Lipan bands expanded the Apacheria considerably to the east and south, and their expeditions of war and raids against the settled prairie tribes of the Wichita , Pawnee , Caddo , Jumano and other tribes made them the enemy of almost everyone Tribes of the Southern Plains. Soon the eastern Apaches controlled the hunting, trade and slave trade on the plains. But when, in the 18th century, the mounted Comanche and the Ute from Colorado were constantly wiping out individual rancherias of the Apaches (or their herds of horses were stolen) in rapid robberies on the Apaches bound to their fields, the mobile Comanche and Ute were unable to do so track fast enough or locate them in the plains. Like many tribes in the southwest, the various groups of the Apaches were persevering, fast runners as well as extremely undemanding, tough and patient warriors, but had never developed into exceptional riders because the horse also served them as food in times of need (they even developed a special one Preference for horse meat ). The Comanche, on the other hand, became the best equestrian warriors in the entire Plains as well as the most cunning horse thieves. Soon Comanche gangs had hundreds of horses in their camps and even had successes in breeding, something the Apaches had never succeeded in doing. In addition, the Comanche understood very quickly to rise to the protection of the tribes warred and robbed by the Apaches and thus had not only the speed, but also the higher number of warriors on their side. By forbidding the Spaniards to hand over weapons to Indians, the Apaches had no direct access to weapons, except through robbery or illegal trafficking with Texan coastal tribes. The Comanche, on the other hand, got arms and other useful goods via the Caddo and Wichita and Pawnee, which had direct access to the French trading posts in Louisiana. Around 1710 the first Jicarilla gangs from Nebraska and Kansas had to move south of the Arkansas River . By 1740, most of the Jicarilla and Mescalero had left the Southern Plains and taken shelter in the mountains of New Mexico and Colorado. The eastern group, the Llanero, retained their nomadism and continued to roam the plains of eastern New Mexico, Colorado and northwest Texas, hunting bison there. The eastern Apacheria had now almost completely become the Comancheria .
In 1773 the Spaniards established a mission at Taos to evangelize the Jicarilla. These efforts were soon abandoned because the Indians refused a sedentary life under Spanish law.
When the Spaniards in San Antonio and Santa Fe in 1785 and 1786 with the Western and Eastern Comanche (including the Ute, Diné, Wichita, Pueblo, Coahuiltec) concluded an alliance against all Apaches, especially against the aggressively strong and predatory Easterners Apache was directed, the Jicarilla were forced to join this alliance in order not to be destroyed. In the years to come, the Jicarilla served the Spaniards as scouts and warriors in their battles against the Eastern Comanche as well as the related Mescalero , Lipan , Western Apaches and Chiricahua .
Against the common enemy, the Eastern Comanche and Kiowa , the Ollero often allied themselves with the Pueblo Indians , Spaniards and Mexicans, the Llañero with the Ute , who had been bitter enemies of the Comanche since the middle of the 18th century. In addition, the Jicarilla robbed and plundered haciendas , ranches and villages of the Spaniards and Mexicans in New Mexico and northern Mexico as well as the Indios Mansos (span: tame Indians ) in missions and in the countryside. Their enemies also included the Cheyenne , Arapaho , Wichita , Pawnee , Osage , Caddo , Diné and even the Kiowa Apaches , Mescalero and Lipan, who belong to the Apaches .
The Jicarilla are described in reports of the time as the most useless , cruel and predatory Indians in New Mexico. They were denied bravery and pride, they were considered cowards and cunning , since they did not openly seek battle like the Comanche and other Plains tribes.
Like their Apache relatives, they would rather ambush their enemies and immediately disperse into small groups if they encountered open resistance and did not have an advantage. This had nothing to do with cowardice, but with the insight that a dead warrior was not so easy to replace and that the glorious death did not benefit the tribe. A Jicarilla warrior did not gain prestige by killing an enemy, but with the skill and cunning with which he was able to provide his family and loved ones with stolen food, weapons, clothing and horses. Also the scalping was the Jicarilla strange.
In 1851 they were defeated by a US force under Kit Carson and taken to a reservation , but soon left due to supply problems. By the destruction of their fields and fields as well as the bison herds of their livelihoods, they took on the habits of the other Apache tribes and lived only from robbery and plunder.
In 1853 the US government tried to relocate several hundred Jicarilla to a reservation on the Rio Puerco . This attempt also failed and the Indians continued their raids on American settlements. After another defeat, the Jicarilla signed a peace treaty on July 30, 1853, which was never broken. Between 1853 and 1883, the jicarillas had to move no fewer than eight times before the government finally found a place for them and settled them on a reservation in northern New Mexico in 1887.
Culture, religion and subsistence
Apart from the language (this is still spoken by less than half of the Jicarilla, mostly elderly) and the social organization, little remains of the original culture. The only traditional ceremonies are the so-called Bear Dance (a healing ceremony , has some similarities with the Ute Bear Dance ), rites of passage for boys into being a man, the puberty ritual KEESDA (mostly sunrise dance ) for girls after their first menstruation , which is common to all Apaches today is a central part of their ceremonial life. In addition, as for centuries, the three-day ceremonial races during Gojiiya ( GO-JII-YA , a kind of harvest festival) between the Ollero and Llanero take place every year in mid-September . In the tribal mythology of the Jicarilla, the Ollero ('White Clan') are associated with the moon and plants and the Llañero ('Red Clan') with the sun and animals. Therefore, the race between the two groups symbolizes the race between the two stars, the moon and the sun, as well as the food they symbolize - animals (as a source of meat) and plants (as a source of grain, berries, roots). Some time ago there were attempts to reintroduce old craft techniques. Today, leather clothing, bead embroidery and a limited number of coiled baskets are produced again using a special technique.
Economically, the Jicarilla are better off than most of the other southwestern tribes. Substantial income is generated from the leasing of mining rights and the sale of wood. Tourism, too, with the granting of hunting and fishing licenses, is increasingly becoming an economic factor. The money is invested in tribal ventures and in training to secure jobs for young tribal members.
Animal husbandry and wage labor are the most important private sources of income. The Jicarillas also raise sheep, an activity that Diné (Navajo) are recruited for because it brings little prestige. The modern tribal organization is ruled by an elected president.
population
According to Spanish reports, there should have been around 10,000 Jicarilla before their devastating defeat by the Comanche in 1724. The number of people is probably an exaggeration on the part of the Spaniards, who themselves could not believe that the Jicarilla, so much feared and proud of them, as well as other groups of the Apaches, fled the northern and eastern parts of the Apacheria to the west and south. In reality, the Jicarillas may have counted between 2,500 and 3,500 (5,000 at most) people, bearing in mind that 25 percent of these were men and the rest women (35 percent) and children (40 percent). Entire groups in the plains of Kansas, Nebraska and Texas were wiped out and the survivors were decimated again by diseases introduced by the Spaniards and by hunger.
At the beginning of the 19th century there were only about 1,800 Jicarilla with about 450 warriors. Around 1840 the Jicarilla, which had also been worn out by the constant wars, was only estimated to have 800 to 1,200 tribal members and around 200 to 300 warriors. Of the 25,000 Apaches nationwide today, around 3,400 are Jicarilla.
See also
literature
- William C. Sturtevant (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians . Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington:
- Alfonso Ortiz (Ed.): Southwest. Volume 9, 1979, ISBN 0-16-004577-0 ;
- Alfonso Ortiz (Ed.): Southwest. Volume 10, 1983, ISBN 0-16-004579-7 .
- Tom Bathi: Southwestern Indian Tribes. KC Publ., Las Vegas 1997, ISBN 0-88714-097-1 .
Web links
Individual evidence
- ↑ How to pronunce Jicarilla
- ↑ Homepage of the Jicarilla Apache Nation
- ↑ INDIAN AFFAIRS - Jicarilla Agency
- ↑ The Jicarillas - A Resourceful People ( Memento of the original from February 23, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Endangered Languages Project Jicarilla Apache
- ↑ Jicarilla - Orientation
- ^ Laurance D. Linford: Tony Hillerman's Navajoland. B&T publishing house, 2001, ISBN 0-87480-698-4 . (engl.)
- ^ Anthropological Report on the Cuelcahen Nde Lipan Apaches of Texas. ( Memento of the original from April 8, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. P. 100.
- ^ Jicarilla History
- ↑ Jicarilla Apache pottery
- ↑ Northern Rio Grande National Heritage Area - Native Heritage ( Memento from October 22, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ THE HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY COMMUNITY AT RANCHOS DE TAOS, NEW MEXICO, Jicarilla Resettlement in the Taos Valley ( Memento of the original from February 1, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ ( Page no longer available , search in web archives: This Land is Your Land, This is Mine: The Socioeconomic Implications of Land Use Among the Jicarilla Apache and Arden Communities. )
- ↑ The Northern Utes of Utah
- ↑ Jicarilla Apache: Tinde - Identity. ( Memento from February 20, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ The Jicarilla Apaches and the Archeology of the Taos Regionmore
- ^ Bernice Sunday Eiselt: The emergence of Jicarilla Apache enclave economy during the 19th century in Northern New Mexico, Volume 1, University of Michigan., 2006.
- ↑ Eight Northern Indian Pueblos
- ↑ INDIAN AFFAIRS - Northern Pueblos Agency
- ↑ Jicarilla Apache Texts. ( Memento from February 1, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Jeffrey D. Carlisle: Spanish Relations with the Apache Nations east of the Rio Grande. University of North Texas, May 2001, OCLC 50632116 , p. 24.
- ↑ Go-jii-ya ( Memento of the original from July 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
