turban

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A turban ( Arabic عمامة, DMG ʿImāma ; Turkish sarık , Italian turbante , via Persian dulband , also tulbend) is a headgear of pre-Islamic origin, which is of great importance in Islam and in the history of the Orient. The turban consists of one or more long strips of fabric which, according to a special method, are worn around the head or a cap ( Arabic قلنسوة, DMG Qalansuwa ). Turbans are mainly worn in Muslim countries and in parts of India in numerous local variations.

Man with a turban in Panaji, India (2008)

Turbans and similar headgear

Maya painting in Bonampak : dignitaries with turban
  • The Sikh turban is called a dastar .
  • The keffiyeh , known as the "Palestinian shawl" , is often worn wrapped like a turban.
  • The Tuareg's shesh ( Tagelmust ) is often confused with the turban.
  • The kavuk , which was worn in the Ottoman Empire , was a symbol of the social class to which the wearer belonged, or which office he held.
  • For the Kurds in the Autonomous Region of Kurdistan , the color of the Camanes (جامانە) partly determines their regional and political affiliation.
  • The various Maya peoples also had turban-like headgear.

The turban in antiquity and before Islam

Statues from ancient Palmyra depict Roman women wearing turban. They usually wore a veil or cloak over it. Palmyra was no exception then. On the stone reliefs that have been preserved in Persepolis , people with turban-like headgear can be recognized. In Zoroastrianism it was mandatory to wear a headgear, which is why Zoroastrians usually wore a turban. With the emergence of Islam, the turban only became a distinguishing feature between Arabs and non-Arabs and between Muslims and non-Muslims. In addition, the Islamic narrative tradition arose that Adam, after he came to earth from paradise, was given a turban to replace his crown in paradise.

Muhammad's turban

According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam II most are hadiths that Muhammad wearing a turban describe " anachronistic ". Proof is suggested that Muhammad's turban - as usual with heroes - was given an epithet, "the cloud" ( as-saḥāb ), and that Muhammad himself is always referred to as the "bearer of the turban" ( ṣāḥib al-ʿimāma ).

According to several hadeeths , the angel Gabriel wore a black turban. He later put one on Muhammad. During the Battle of Badr , Muhammad received support from God and angels wearing black turbans. These are the dividers between belief and unbelief ( inna al-ʿimāma ḥāǧiza bain al-kufr wa-l-īmān ), so Muhammad in a hadeeth. According to a report, he later put on his turban at the oasis of Ghadīr Chumm ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib , with the fabric hanging over his shoulders. Muhammad added that he was the divider between the Muslims and the Muschrik ūn ( bain al-muslimīn wa-l-mušrikīn ). The turban, which he put on ʿAlī, was probably Muhammad's own, since his name is rendered as “the cloud” ( as-saḥāb ). Muhammad wore his turban with and without a cap ( Qalānsuwa ). Furthermore, according to a report by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, he was black and had two corners that hung between his shoulders ( ʿimāma saudāʾ qad arḫā ṭarafai-hā bain katifai-hi ). Another hadeeth says that Muhammad entered Mecca wearing a black turban . In the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul you can see the turban attributed to Muhammad and also those of vonAlī.

Appearance

Colours

The turban has been subject to constant changes throughout history, with the colors changing in particular. Here is a list of the most important events.

to form

In European works of art, the high turban dominates, as it was under the Ottomans. It is characterized by the fact that it was taller than it was wide in order to have space for jewelry in many cases.

The turban in Islamic rites

Ignaz Goldziher refers to a hadeeth in an article on "Exposing the head" which instructs Muslims not to take off their turban while going to Friday prayer, the prayer itself, while the preacher mounts the minbar and the Chutba recites. This should also not be done during great heat. Apart from this hadeeth, Islamic scholars such as Rashīd Ridā also hold the opinion that headgear is compulsory during prayer. However, as Goldziher clarifies, Raschīd Rīda uses the word required (Arabic: maṭlūb ), but refrains from using the phrase condition of prayer ( šarṭ aṣ-ṣalāt ). Ridā is therefore not of the opinion that a prayer without a turban is void, but merely reprehensible . In modern times, however, this is perceived differently. For example, according to a fatwā from the Qatari Ministry of Religion, it is not necessary for a man to cover his head during prayer. In the case of fervent supplication ( duʿā ), however, it was the rule in history for men to take off their turbans. The traveler Ibn Jubair reported a scene which he saw in Medina. At the instruction of their preacher, after a prayer at Muhammad's grave, the people there threw their turbans in the air, stretched out their hands to the grave and began to cry to beg him for mercy. During Ihrām after a hadeeth, believers are strictly forbidden to wear a turban or any other type of head covering. Ultimately, the purpose of Ihrām is to prove one's own humility before God. Even the defeated had to appear before the victor without a turban. Since the dress code during the Ihrām is synonymous with imitating the clothing of the dead, some Islamic legal scholars deduce from this that one must not wear a turban at the burial of a deceased Muslim.

The turban as a distinctive feature

In history, the turban was often used to differentiate between followers of different religions, women and men or social classes. Below is an overview.

Muslims and "unbelievers"

In the Islamic tradition, the turban became the “symbol of Islam” ( sīmā al-islām ) and the “separator between belief and unbelief” ( ḥāǧiza bain al-kufr wa-l-īmān ). Dhimmīs had a duty to distinguish themselves from Muslims ( ghiyār ). However, it is not entirely clear when such rules found their way into Islamic jurisprudence. The Koran and Hadeeth do not serve as a basis for this, as there is nothing in them that could indicate such laws. Western research has long assumed that such laws go back to the Umayyad caliph ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz . However, new research shows that it cannot be precisely classified who exactly initiated these laws. It is recognized that many edicts go back to ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz. However, it cannot be shown that this is the case for all. The Islamic historian al-Balādhurī writes that ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz had forbidden the dhimmīs to wear a turban or to imitate the Muslims in their clothing in any other way. Hadith scholar ʿAbd ar-Rāziq as-Sanʿānī agrees and writes that Christians were forbidden to wear a turban ( ʿisb ). Ibn ʿAsākir , on the other hand, does not write anything about a turban, but only mentions the tailasān (a piece of cloth that is placed around the turban), which Christians were not allowed to wear. Yarbrough incorrectly translates in his article that Christians had to wear this.

Also Harun al-Rashid forbade to wear the turban or the Tailasān the dhimmis. At this time they should already be wearing the qalānsuwa (a large cap).

According to Hārūn ar-Raschīd, there are more precise records of al-Mutawakkil's instructions regarding clothing for dhimmīs. In 849 he issued a decree that has not survived. The historian at-Tabarī , however, included it in his work. It says that dhimmīs have to wear a honey-colored tailasān, among other things. In addition, "whoever put on a Qalansūwa hat should choose a different color from the Qalansūwa hats that Muslims wore and attach two buttons". If a dhimmī wanted to wear a turban over it, it had to be honey-colored.

Under al-Hākim in Egypt, Christians and Jews had to wear black clothing. This was the color of his adversaries, the Abbasids. In 1301, Christians in Egypt and Syria were forced to wear blue turbans. Jews, on the other hand, had to wear them in yellow and Samaritans in red. However, these rules could often be circumvented, especially if the person concerned had good contacts with the respective ruler. Sometimes dhimmīs were allowed to wear a white turban. Even more so if only a few Muslims lived in a city. In some cases, attempts were made to circumvent these clothing regulations with an extra payment by the dhimmīs, but this could also fail. For example in the 14th century in Syria by the strict opposition of Ibn Taimīyas. Generally speaking, the laws were tightened when Christians or Jews wanted to show their wealth and take a higher place in the social hierarchy.

The Shāfiʿites reject turbans.

Class difference

In the Zaidite highlands of Yemen , the dagger and the headgear were considered to be a distinguishing feature of classes well into the 20th century. In this social constellation , Sayyids , Qādīs and Faqīhs wore a turban. Together these three classes formed the top layer, while the Sayyids still stood above the other two. Her turban consisted of a hard hat around which a cloth ( miḥašša or šāš ) was wrapped. The oldest version of it was a black frame ( qāwāq ṯulāʾī ) over which an embroidered cover ( qiḥf ) was placed. Under this cover there were usually one or two caps against sweat ( maʿraqa ). Today it is customary to tie an embroidered cloth over a hard cap. This form of the turban has only existed since 1948, when some notables were arrested by the then Zaidite Imām Ahmad and used it. Qādīs and faqīhs always wore the turban a little looser, which gave them a wavy appearance. For a long time, only the Sayyids were allowed to tie their turban so that part of it hung up to the wearer's back.

Tribesmen but also market traders wore the Qubʿ , a cloth that is loosely swung around the head and for which Yemen is still known today. After Haykel, they form the second class. The third and final class were simple workers and dhimmīs. This particularly affected the village population, who lived far away from cities. They just let their hair grow long and did not wear a hat. A Jewish proverb from Yemen recommends that a matter be discussed with turban-wearers first and, should that fail, to be left to the qubʿ-wearers. A Yemeni proverb, on the other hand, says that under the turban there is disbelief ( kufr ). Anyone wishing to circumvent this class structure could result in severe penalties. Haykel describes in an article the case of a member of the lower class who came back after a decade-long absence and presented himself as a missing Sayyid. The latter then wanted to sleep with the Sayyid's wife, but she refused. There were trials. During the third, the judge knocked the defendant's turban off the head, which is considered a punishment in Zaidi law. In the end, the fraudster was publicly flogged and had to leave the scene.

  • Yemen tribesman with a qubʿ.

  • A money counting Yemeni with a qubʿ.

  • Yemenite from Kathkau with a Qubʿ.

Crusaders and Muslims

Suleyman I (around 1495–1566)

Already during the time of the Crusades , but even more so after the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans under Sultan Mehmed , the turban was the subject of representations in European art . The Muslim headgear symbolized on the one hand the religious disgust that many harbored towards Islam, as well as political fear. He was perceived as the trademark of Muslims. In battle scenes, artists depicted Muslims as wearing turbo while Europeans wore a helmet on their head.

Women and men in the Ottoman Empire

The researcher John Block Friedmann points out in an article that a viewpoint focused on male Muslims distorts reality. “Female turbans” are often neglected. In 1496 Albrecht Dürer published a work entitled “The Turkish Couple”. Dürer had come into contact with the Ottomans in Venice and through the painter Gentile Bellini, who presented his Turkish models to Dürer. It is also known, however, that women were only allowed to wear turbans under certain conditions, which is why it is entirely possible that Dürer projected turbans from male Muslims onto women. Nonetheless, there was the difference that men wrapped their turban around a red cap on their head, while women did so without a cap and with the help of their hair.

Shiite clergy in battle

The turban played a special role in the Iran-Iraq war . After the 1979 revolution , many young people went to a Hauza , a Shiite university. When the war broke out, a large number of these young students joined the Iranian armed forces - especially the Basīdj - in the fight against Iraq . In order not to give the Iranians the impression that the scholars are withdrawing from the war, the Hauzas decreed that the clergy should also put on their turbans during combat operations. According to BBC Farsi, this had three effects: it was intended to advertise the clergy, lay believers could see at any time who they could ask for information on questions of religious law, and the character of the Islamic Republic was to be affirmed. Sometimes they put on their robes themselves. In the last years of the war, the turban even became a mandatory item of clothing for the Basīdj.

In Iraq, the turban is also a symbol in the fight against the IS organization . For example, the official Iranian news agency IRNA reported in October 2016 in the course of the war for Mosul about Shiite clergymen who fought at the front with their turbans. They had already worked with Sunni clergy during the fighting over the cities of Tikrit and Fallujah . This cooperation had already saved countless lives in Fallujah. Together they aim to separate the IS organization from the Sunnis and live together peacefully.

The turban in the present

At the present time the turban is no longer a very important topic among Muslims, but there are still discourses about wearing this garment.

Controversy in Malaysia

In 1997 there was a controversy in Malaysia about the turban, which is called Serban there . One school had previously excluded three of its students from classes because the house rules forbade, among other things, the wearing of a turban. However, the students cited the fact that Islam requires them to wear one and therefore they could not do without it. Under Malaysian law, the school was empowered to take such a step. However, the students relied on Article 11 of the constitution, according to which every citizen is guaranteed the right to freely practice their religion.

In the Supreme Court, the students were first given the right to refer to Article 11. It was also found that such an exclusion from school was "illogical" as Sikhs were still allowed to wear the turban. In addition, one should give Muslims the opportunity to be a good example and not be afraid of Islam or give in to outside interference. This also includes wearing a turban and thus covering the aura . The following court of appeal again found the school right because, in its opinion, the turban is not an essential characteristic of Islamic religious practice.

Guantánamo

Because headgear could be used as a weapon , the turban, among other things, was forbidden in the Guantánamo prison camp . Then in 2002 there was an incident in which guards went into a cell and, while praying, ordered an inmate to take off his improvised turban made of towels. He refused at first, but then gave in. As a result, there was a hunger strike and protests from inmates. The inmates were then allowed to cover their heads. However, the guards indicated that they would inspect all headgear.

Fatwās for wearing the turban

In a fatwā , the website operated by Muhammad al-Munajid writes , islamqa.info, that since Muhammad wore the turban, imitation of it is legal ( mubāḥ ; see al-Ahkām al-Chamsa ). The basic idea of ​​Islam ( al-aṣl ), however, is that every person wears what is customary in his people and does not offend against the Sharīʿa . Muhammad wore the turban for the same reason. If one were to say that wearing the turban is recommended under religious law ( sunna ), then one would also have to say that other items of clothing by Muhammad such as the robe ( ridāʾ ) are also recommended. The Qatari Ministry of Religion agrees. It refers to Muhammad ibn al-ʿUthaimīn , who wrote that wearing the turban was a custom in the time of Muhammad and is therefore not recommended under religious law (sunna).

Shiites

The wool for the turban of Shiite scholars comes mostly from India or Thailand and is either white or black. She used to come partly from England. However, due to the English colonial history in Iran and the associated reduced reputation of the English, the Iranians refused to use the more expensive English material. The fabric length ranges from six to eleven meters. Younger clergymen in particular usually use a shorter cloth so that changing diapers is less of a problem. There are different ways to wrap your own turban: Tabarist , Qomish , Nadjaf , Arabic and others. The color of the turban and the way it is wrapped can vary greatly.

Web links

Commons : Turbans  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Turban  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

bibliography

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  • Dietmar Bartz: Enmity connects . taz.am weekend, December 8, 2001. Accessible online at taz.archiv
  • Julian Borger: US throws in the towel on turbans . March 2, 2002. Accessible online
  • John Block Friedmann: The Art of the Exotic: Robinet Testard's Turbans and Turban-like Coiffure in Netherton, Robin and Gale R. Owen-Crocker (Eds.) Medieval Clothing and Textiles, Vol . 4 . The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2008, pp. 173-191.
  • Ignaz Goldziher: The exposure of the head . In Der Islam , Volume 6, Issue 4 (1915), pp. 301-316.
  • Bernard Haykel: Dissembling Descent, or How the Barber Lost his Turban: Identity and Evidence in Eighteenth-Century Zaydī Yemen in Islamic Law and Society, Vol. 9, No. 2, Evidence in Islamic Law (2002), pp. 294-230.
  • Georg Jacob: Altarabisches Bedouin life described according to the sources . Mayer & Müller, Berlin, 1897. Digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Faltarabischesbed00jaco%23page%2F236%2Fmode%2F2up~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
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  • Jaclyn Ling-Chien Neo and Li-Ann Thio: Religious Dress in Schools: The Serban Controversy in Malaysia in The International and Comparative Law Quarterly Vol. 55, No. 3 (2006), pp. 671-688.
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Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Brockhaus
  2. ^ Rothe, Ursula: Ethnicity in Harlow, Mary A Cultural History of Dress and Fashion in Antiquity . London [u. a.], Bloomsbury Academic, 2017, p. 133
  3. ↑ Persepolis, Apadana, North Stairs, Central Relief . Accessible online
  4. ↑ Ervad (Dr.) Hoshang J. Bhadha: Effect of Wearing Cap on Zarathustri Urvaan . Accessible online
  5. ↑ Algar, H .: ʿAmāma in Encyclopaedia Iranica 1989 (updated 2011) http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amama-or-ammama-arabic-emama-the-turban .
  6. ^ Majda, Stillman and Stillmann: Libās in The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Second edition.
  7. ↑ al-Laun al-ʿamāʾim al-maʾṯūra http://web.archive.org/web/20170717204703/http://tanzeemulirshad.com/sister-detail.php?id=741 [07/17/2017].
  8. ↑ Bab Al-'imāma ḥāǧiza bain al-kufr wa-l-IMA ... . http://web.archive.org/web/20170601082611/http://library.islamweb.net/hadith/display_hbook.php?bk_no=970&pid=524129 [01.06.2017].
  9. ↑ Ism al-ʿimāma al-latī kasā-hā ar-rasūl li-ʿalī bin abī ṭālib . http://web.archive.org/web/20170601083916/https://fatwa.islamweb.net/Fatwa/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=45600 [01.06.2017].
  10. ↑ Zād al-maʿād fī-hadyi ḫair al-ʿibād - malābisu-hu ṣallā allāh ʿalai-hi wa-s-salam . http://www.al-islam.com/portal.aspx?pageid=241&Words= عمامة & Type = phrase & Level = exact & ID = 13527 & Return = http% 3a% 2f% 2fwww.al-islam.com% 2fPortals% 2fal-islam_com% 2fportal. aspx% 3fpageid% 3d1284% 26Words% 3d عمامة% 26 Level% 3dexact% 26Type% 3dphrase% 26SectionName% 3dPage% 26ContentLanguage% 3d1% 26Page% 3d0% 26SectionID% 3d5 [05/30/2017].
  11. ↑ Emāme ḥażrat-e ʿalī (ʿ) dar laḥẓe żarab ḫordan? + ʿAks . http://web.archive.org/web/20170602072222/http://namnak.com/ عمامه-حضرت-علی-ع. p17382 [02.06.2017].
  12. ^ Al-Laun al-ʿamāʾim al-maʾṯūra . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717204703/http://tanzeemulirshad.com/sister-detail.php?id=741 [07/17/2017].
  13. ↑ Āšenāyī bā farhang-e ʿemāme-ye pīči-ye rūḥānīyūn / fīlm-e āmūzeš-e ʿemāme-ye pīči . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717201138/http://www.parsine.com/fa/news/128672/ آشنایی-با-فرهنگ-عمامه-پیچی-روحانیون-فیلم-آموزش-عمامه-پیچی j [07/17/2017].
  14. ^ Al-Laun al-ʿamāʾim al-maʾṯūra . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717204703/http://tanzeemulirshad.com/sister-detail.php?id=741 [07/17/2017].
  15. ↑ Zād al-maʿād fī-hadyi ḫair al-ʿibād - malābisu-hu ṣallā allāh ʿalai-hi wa-s-salam . http://www.al-islam.com/portal.aspx?pageid=241&Words= عمامة & Type = phrase & Level = exact & ID = 13527 & Return = http% 3a% 2f% 2fwww.al-islam.com% 2fPortals% 2fal-islam_com% 2fportal. aspx% 3fpageid% 3d1284% 26Words% 3d عمامة% 26 Level% 3dexact% 26Type% 3dphrase% 26SectionName% 3dPage% 26ContentLanguage% 3d1% 26Page% 3d0% 26SectionID% 3d5 [05/30/2017].
  16. ^ Al-Laun al-ʿamāʾim al-maʾṯūra . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717204703/http://tanzeemulirshad.com/sister-detail.php?id=741 [07/17/2017].
  17. ^ Al-Laun al-ʿamāʾim al-maʾṯūra . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717204703/http://tanzeemulirshad.com/sister-detail.php?id=741 [07/17/2017].
  18. ↑ Āšenāyī bā farhang-e ʿemāme pīči-ye rūḥānīyūn / fīlm-e āmūzeš-e ʿemāme pīči . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717201138/http://www.parsine.com/fa/news/128672/ آشنایی-با-فرهنگ-عمامه-پیچی-روحانیون-فیلم-آموزش-عمامه-پیچی j [07/17/2017].
  19. ↑ Āšenāyī bā farhang-e ʿemāme pīči-ye rūḥānīyūn / fīlm-e āmūzeš-e ʿemāme pīči . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717201138/http://www.parsine.com/fa/news/128672/ آشنایی-با-فرهنگ-عمامه-پیچی-روحانیون-فیلم-آموزش-عمامه-پیچی j [07/17/2017].
  20. ↑ Āšenāyī bā farhang-e ʿemāme pīči-ye rūḥānīyūn / fīlm-e āmūzeš-e ʿemāme pīči . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717201138/http://www.parsine.com/fa/news/128672/ آشنایی-با-فرهنگ-عمامه-پیچی-روحانیون-فیلم-آموزش-عمامه-پیچی j [07/17/2017].
  21. ↑ Āšenāyī bā farhang-e ʿemāme pīči-ye rūḥānīyūn / fīlm-e āmūzeš-e ʿemāme pīči . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717201138/http://www.parsine.com/fa/news/128672/ آشنایی-با-فرهنگ-عمامه-پیچی-روحانیون-فیلم-آموزش-عمامه-پیچی j [07/17/2017].
  22. ↑ Scheiner: From the Yellow Patch to the Star of David? , P. 20.
  23. ↑ Goldziher: The baring of the head . 1905, p. 301.
  24. ↑ Goldziher: The baring of the head . 1905, pp. 302-303.
  25. ↑ al-ʿimāma fī-ṣ-ṣalāt wa-ḫāriǧu-hu . http://fatwa.islamweb.net/fatwa/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=57793&RecID=28&srchwords=%C7%E1%DA%E3%C7%E3%C9&R1=1&R2=0 [03.06.2017].
  26. ↑ Goldziher: The baring of the head . 1905, pp. 303-304.
  27. ^ Majda, Stillman and Stillmann: Libās in The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Second edition.
  28. ^ Yarbrough, Luke: Origins of the ghiyār in Journal of the American Oriental Society , Vol. 134, No. 1 (2014), p. 113
  29. ^ Tritton, AS: The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects . Frank Class & Co. Ltd., London, 1970 (Islam and the Muslim World, No. 14), p. 116.
  30. ^ Levy-Rubin, Milka: Non-Muslims in the early Islamic Empire: from surrender to coexistence . Cambridge [u. a.], Cambridge Univ. Press, 2011, pp. 88 + 89 + 92.
  31. ^ Yarbrough: Origins of the ghiyār , pp. 113f
  32. ↑ Yarbrough: Origins of the ghiyār , pp. 116-117
  33. ↑ as-Sanʿānī, ʿAbd ar-Rāziq: al-Muṣannaf fī-l-ḥadīṯ , Volume 6, p. 61. Digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fwaq15649%2F06_15654%23page%2Fn60%2Fmode%2F2up~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  34. ↑ Ibn ʿAsākir: Taʾrīḫ madīnat Dimašq , Volume 2, p. 185. Digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FFP24037%2F02%23page%2Fn183%2Fmode%2F2up~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  35. ^ Yarbrough: Origins of the ghiyār , p. 117
  36. ^ Majda, Stillman and Stillmann: Libās in The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Second edition.
  37. ^ Tritton: The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects , p. 117.
  38. ↑ Scheiner, Jens. J .: From the yellow patch to the Jewish star? Genesis and application of Jewish badges in Islam and Christian Europe (849-1941) . Frankfurt am Main [u. a.]: Lang, 2004, p. 21.
  39. ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī, Abū Ǧaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Ǧarīr: Taʾrīḫ ar-rusul wa-'l-mulūk wa-'l-ḫulafāʾ . Cairo, Dār al-Maʿārif, 1967, Volume 9, pp. 172-174. Digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FWAQ17280%2Ftrm09%23page%2Fn171%2Fmode%2F2up~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  40. ↑ Scheiner: From the Yellow Patch to the Star of David? , P. 20.
  41. ^ Tritton: The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects , p. 120.
  42. ^ Tritton: The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects , pp. 120f.
  43. ^ Tritton: The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects , p. 123.
  44. ↑ Mundy, Martha: Ṣanʿā 'Dress , pp. 529-532.
  45. ↑ Haykel, Bernard: dissembling Descent, or How the Barber Lost his turban: Identity and Evidence in Eighteenth-Century Zaydi Yemen in Islamic Law and Society, Vol 9, No.. 2, Evidence in Islamic Law (2002), p. 205.
  46. ↑ Mundy, Martha: Ṣanʿā 'Dress , pp. 529-532.
  47. ↑ Mundy: Ṣanʿā 'Dress , pp. 532f.
  48. ↑ Haykel: Dissembling Dissent , p. 205.
  49. ↑ Mundy: Ṣanʿā 'Dress , p. 533.
  50. ↑ Haykel: Dissembling Dissent , pp. 201f.
  51. ^ Friedmann: The Art of the Exotic: Robinet Testard's Turbans and Turban-like Coiffure , pp. 173-174.
  52. ↑ Friedmann: `` The Art of the Exotic: Robinet Testard's Turbans and Turban-like Coiffure '', pp. 176-177.
  53. ↑ ʿEmāme wa-tofang: rūḥānīyūn-e šīʿe-ye īrān dar ǧabhe-hā-ye ǧang . http://www.bbc.com/persian/iran/2010/09/100912_war30th_spirituality_khalaji.shtml [06/09/2017].
  54. ↑ ʿEmāme-hāye golgūn-e pāsdārī az eslām dar barābar-e enḥerāf . http://web.archive.org/web/20170717145434/http://www.irna.ir/fa/News/82296324/ .
  55. ^ Neo, Jaclyn Ling-Chien and Li-Ann Thio: Religious Dress in Schools: The Serban Controversy in Malaysia in The International and Comparative Law Quarterly Vol. 55, No. 3 (2006), p. 675.
  56. ^ Neo and Thio: Religious Dress in Schools: The Serban Controversy in Malaysia , p. 672.
  57. ^ Neo and Thio: Religious Dress in Schools: The Serban Controversy in Malaysia , p. 676.
  58. ^ Neo and Thio: Religious Dress in Schools: The Serban Controversy in Malaysia , p. 679.
  59. ^ Neo and Thio: Religious Dress in Schools: The Serban Controversy in Malaysia , p. 676.
  60. ^ Borger: US throws in the towel on turbans . Accessible online
  61. ↑ Hal libs al-ʿimāma min as-sunna? . http://web.archive.org/web/20170530153510/https://islamqa.info/ar/113894 [05/30/2017].
  62. ↑ Libs al-ʿimāma wa-naḥwi-hā . http://web.archive.org/web/20170530165423/http://fatwa.islamweb.net/fatwa/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=138986 [05/30/2017].
  63. ↑ `` Hame čīs dar-bāre lebās-e rūḥānī-hā ''. http://web.archive.org/web/20170610155327/http://www.tabnak.ir/fa/pages/?cid=60852 August 24, 2009, archived on June 10, 2017.