Palmyra

The title of this article is ambiguous. Further meanings are listed under Palmyra (disambiguation) .

Palmyra
UNESCO world heritage
Tetrapylon in 2016
National territory:	Syria
Type:	Culture
Criteria :	(i) (ii) (iv)
Surface:	1,640 ha
Buffer zone:	16,800 ha
Reference No .:	23bis
UNESCO region :	Asia
History of enrollment
Enrollment:	1980  ( session 4 )
Extension:	2017
Red list :	since 2013

Coordinates: 34 ° 34 '  N , 38 ° 16'  E

Palmyra​

Syria

Overview of Palmyra (2008)

Palmyra seen from the north (2008)

Palmyra ( Latinized form of the ancient Greek Παλμύρα , Palmýra ( f. Sg. ); Arabic تدمر Tadmur ; Aramaic ܬܕܡܘܪܬܐ Tedmurtā ; Hebrew תדמור Tadmor ), currently also called Tadmor , is an ancient oasis town in what is now Homs Governorate in Syria . It is located on the territory of the modern city of Tadmor , which had about 51,000 inhabitants before the civil war .

The first archaeological discoveries came from the Neolithic Age . The city itself was first mentioned in writing in ancient times : it was mentioned in the annals of several Assyrian kings and in the Old Testament . Palmyra was later part of the Seleucid Empire and experienced its heyday after the annexation by the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD.

Palmyra had a certain autonomy within the Roman Empire and became part of the Syria Province . The metropolis had its own senate, which was responsible for public works and the local militia, and an independent tax system. In the 3rd century it was elevated to a colonia . In the time of the imperial crisis of the 3rd century , the city gained strong political importance and was briefly independent in 270. The empire of the city represented an important power factor in the Middle East. Palmyra was however conquered again by Roman troops in 272 and the city was largely destroyed in 273 after a failed second rebellion.

Palmyra was on an important caravan route in Syria, halfway from Damascus via the Roman oasis Al-Dumair and on via the Resafa fort to the Euphrates . In the middle of the Syrian desert, two springs donate water, with which the still preserved palm gardens in the south and east of the city are irrigated. The city's wealth made it possible to erect monumental construction projects. In the third century, the city was a prosperous metropolis and a regional center of the Middle East . The Palmyrians were among the renowned traders, established stations along the Silk Road and traded throughout the empire. The city's social structure was tribal and its inhabitants spoke a language of their own in the Palmyrenean dialect of Aramaic. Greek was used for commercial and diplomatic purposes. The culture of Palmyra, influenced by the Romans, Greeks and Persians, is unique in the region. The inhabitants worshiped local deities and Mesopotamian and Arab gods .

The city has belonged to Syria as an independent state since the Ottomans were expelled in 1918. Today it houses distinctive art and architecture and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 . In May 2015, members of the terrorist organization “ Islamic State ” (IS) captured Palmyra and subsequently blew up important historical buildings; the site was also looted. On March 8, 2016, the Syrian armed forces with Russian support temporarily regained control of Palmyra. In May the reconquest of the city was celebrated with a classical concert in front of the ruins; But in December 2016, after fierce fighting, IS fighters marched into Palmyra again. On March 2, 2017, the Russian government announced that IS had had to vacate the city again; However, since the Islamists had left numerous booby traps behind, the Syrian army was only slowly moving back into Palmyra.

Location and etymology

Landscape in and around Palmyra (2005)

Palmyra is located 215 km (134 miles) northeast of the Syrian capital Damascus . The ruined city is located in an oasis surrounded by palm trees (around 20 different varieties). It is located in the center of the Aleppo highlands and is enclosed by two mountain ranges to the north and south-west. In the south and east, Palmyra is surrounded by the Syrian desert . A small wadi ( al-Qubur ) crosses the area before flowing from the western hills behind the city in the eastern gardens of the oasis. The tributary Efqa flows south of the wadi . Around 70, Pliny the Elder praised the city for its location in the desert, the richness of the soil and the fields on the outskirts of the city that had previously made agriculture and livestock possible.

The word Tadmor (in Palmyrenic inscriptions tdmry or tdmwry ) has an ancient Semitic origin, the Greek name Palmyra refers to the vegetation of the oasis (in the figurative sense “palm city”). Today it is widely believed that Palmyra is derived from Tadmor . Tamar means “date palm” in Hebrew and is said to have been the name of a city that Solomon founded; this name reference was transferred to the oasis settlement Tadmor .

The name Palmyra first appeared at the beginning of the first century AD and was used throughout the Roman Empire; the name form Tadmor was still used in Palmyra itself. The American archaeologist Michael Patrick O'Connor claimed that Palmyra and Tadmor come from the Hurrian . Here he creates a connection between the Hurrian verbs pal (to know) and tad (to love). In the thirteenth century, the Syrian geographer Yāqūt ar-Rūmī wrote that Tadmor was the name of a daughter of one of Noah's distant descendants and that she was buried in the city.

history

Baal Temple (2005)

Tetrapylon , Palmyra (1987)

View of the Arab citadel Qalʿat Ibn Maʿn (2010)

Overview of Palmyra from the Castle (2005)

The earliest signs of human settlement in the oasis can be traced back to the 7th millennium BC. Determine. Palmyra ( Tadmor ) is mentioned in ancient Assyrian and Babylonian texts (in different spelling: Tadmu / i / ar ). At the time of the Mari archives in the 2nd millennium BC The oasis there apparently already functioned as an important trading post. The place appears again and again in later sources without detailed reports. In the 1st century BC BC priests of Bçl-Marduk and a Bçl temple are documented there. This was one of the most important religious buildings in the entire Middle East, especially in the 1st century AD. The cult of Bēl persisted in Palmyra until late antiquity .

The city was founded in the late 1st century BC. Conquered by Roman troops in the 1st century BC and has been under Roman sovereignty since the 1st century AD . It received the status of a free city from Emperor Hadrian (who briefly stayed in Palmyra in 129/30), Emperor Caracalla raised it to colonia . This not only brought prestige, but also tax privileges. Around the year 100 the city had established itself as a central trading hub in the context of the Indian trade . Palmyra was able to benefit from the connection to the Silk Road and quickly achieved great wealth. A peculiar culture developed in Palmyra, which merged Greco-Roman and Oriental elements. Numerous different influences can be identified, especially in the religious field. The city's wealth was expressed in monumental structures. Apparently Palmyra also set up its own militia early on to protect the caravans against robbers; the Palmyrenian archers in particular quickly became famous. Palmyrenian units are also documented as Roman auxiliary troops in the lower Danube region and in Numidia. The city's troops were to become important in the middle of the third century when the Persian Sassanids attacked the Roman Orient and even captured Emperor Valerian in 260 (see Imperial Crisis of the 3rd Century ). In the face of this crisis, Palmyra took tremendous activity to protect its interests.

After the victory of the Sassanids over the Roman troops in the Battle of Edessa in 260, the Palmyrenes first attempted a rapprochement with the Persians. After the rejection of this request by the Persian King Shapur I , the Palmyrenian prince Septimius Odaenathus sided with Rome and attacked the Persians surprisingly and successfully. In doing so, he suddenly made the city an important power factor in the region and effectively independent. Survivors of the defeated Roman army joined Odaenathus and strengthened his army. After he 261 usurper Quietus had defeated emperor appointed him Gallienus for corrector totius Orientis and in fact as his deputy in this region. Between 262 and 266, the Palmyrenian troops under Odaenathus conquered large parts of Mesopotamia from the Persians. During this time, Odaenathus formally subordinated himself to Rome, especially since the interests of the prince and the Roman emperor coincided: repelling the Persians and securing trade routes. However, Odaenathus gained a lot of influence, so that hidden tensions made themselves felt.

After the murder of Odaenathus in 267 (the background is unclear), his wife Zenobia continued the policy, but the re-strengthened Romans were apparently not ready to simply transfer the special position of the father to the son of Odaenathus. There was an open military conflict. Zenobia took control of Syria in the name of her son Vaballathus and in 270 also occupied the rich Roman province of Egypt . When the Roman emperor Aurelian attacked Palmyra in 272, Zenobia had her son also proclaimed emperor and took on the title of Augusta himself . Aurelian defeated the Palmyrenian troops at Immae near Antioch and again at Emesa and led Zenobia as a prisoner to Rome. During the Roman occupation, the population of Palmyra, which had initially been treated mildly, rose to a second uprising under Septimius Antiochus shortly afterwards . After its suppression, Palmyra was destroyed by the Romans. The territory temporarily ruled by Palmyra fell back to Rome and Persia.

Emperor Diocletian had the city rebuilt much smaller around 300 AD and built a Roman military camp here. Also the Christianity reached Palmyra, and the city was in the early 4th century bishop's seat . The old Baal temple served as the church from the 5th century. In 527 the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian had Palmyra fortified again and stationed the dux of Emesa with troops here. But the time of prosperity was long over for the city. In 634, Islam came to Palmyra with the Arabs , after 636 the settlement finally passed from Eastern Roman hands to that of the Muslims, who built a mountain fortress near the city. Most of the residents subsequently left the place that had become meaningless.

In 1751, an English expedition visited the ruined city and made careful building surveys of the best preserved ancient ruins. After they were published in a monumental panel in 1753, they exerted a considerable influence on the development of classicist architecture in Europe.

Current state

Before the fighting in Syria in 2015, the city was open to tourism, there were good bus connections and several hotels. The ruins have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1980 .

In the civil war in Syria - including the fighting by the Islamic State (IS), which destroys cultural assets for ideological reasons (see also iconophobia ) - the site is increasingly threatened by looting. The UNESCO has her on the red list of endangered world heritage set. Palmyrenian grave reliefs are in great demand among collectors and are illegally exported. By removing the objects from their context, valuable data for a historical analysis can be lost, which could help answer the question of the economic and social framework conditions of the rise of Palmyra.

Lion sculpture from the Allat Temple, 1st century BC Chr. (2010)

Russian troops search for booby traps and mines in April 2016

On the evening of May 20, 2015, the Syrian government troops and militiamen evacuated the city of Tadmor. Thus the archaeological site also came into the hands of IS. The director of the Syrian Antiquities Administration said the objects housed in the Palmyra Museum had been brought to safety. On June 21, 2015, reports were made public from Syria that ISIS had installed land mines and explosive devices around the ancient ruins in Palmyra. However, it is unclear whether the explosives were used to defend Palmyra against Syrian government troops, who may be planning an offensive, or to destroy the temple complex.

Maamun Abdelkarim, head of the Syrian Antiquities Collections, described the destruction of the famous lion sculpture from the Allat Temple on June 27, 2015, which was discovered in 1977 and stood at the entrance to the Palmyra Museum, as "the worst crime that the jihadists have committed against the legacy of Palmyra ”. The destruction is condemned worldwide.

On August 25, 2015, the temple of Baalschamin was destroyed by the IS militia. On August 31, 2015, the IS militia reportedly also carried out a demolition at the Baal Temple, which seriously damaged it. Shortly afterwards, the United Nations confirmed the destruction using satellite images. At the beginning of October, the terrorists blew up the 2000 year old triumphal arch (Hadrian's Gate) on the city's boulevard.

In March 2016, Syrian army troops , supported by militias loyal to the government and in particular the Russian air force , succeeded in liberating parts of the city from IS. Tactically important heights had already been taken by them some time before, including the old citadel of Palmyra , which the IS lost with heavy losses. On March 27, 2016, the Syrian Army announced the full retake of Palmyra.

At first they were confident that they would be able to reconstruct a significant part of the blown structures in Palmyra . On December 10, 2016, however, IS fighters succeeded in a surprising offensive to conquer Palmyra again. On January 20, 2017, further destruction in the ancient city by IS became known. This affected the tetrapylon and the stage of the theater.

On March 1, 2017, Syrian troops advanced on Palmyra Castle. On March 2, 2017, the city was again in the hands of Syrian troops, according to Russian information.

In 2017, various faculties of the University of Konstanz reconstructed the original condition of the ruins in the model and presented this in an exhibition.

Public buildings

Temple of Bēl / Baal Temple

→ Main article : Temple of Baal at Palmyra

Temple and Courtyard of Bel, 2007

The Temple of Bēl, better known as the Temple of Baal, was one of the most important religious structures in the Middle East in the first century AD. According to an inscription, the shrine, the actual sanctuary, was built on April 6, 32 BC. Dedicated to a feast day of Bēl-Marduk. The temple has some structural features that testify to the cultural independence of Palmyra, for example the temple has windows. In addition, the entrance is on the broad side ( Babylonia ), which means that the temple has two cult niches - in contrast to Greek or Roman temples. The temple of Baal was converted into a citadel in 1132/33. On August 30, 2015, the Islamist militia carried out a demolition, which severely damaged the interior of the temple.

Temple of Baalschamin

Cremin (2007) rated the Baalschamin Temple as Palmyra's most important remaining temple next to the Baal Temple.

To the north of the baths was the temple of Baalschamin. In addition to Bēl, who was originally a Mesopotamian god, the Phoenician deity Baalschamin was also worshiped in Palmyra. This was also a "supreme god". He had a similar area of ​​responsibility as Bçl. Just as with Bēl, the moon god Aglibol and the sun god Jarchibol were often added to his side. The fact that there were two “supreme” gods in Palmyra was possibly due to the fact that there were two different social classes. The Phoenicians who later immigrated brought their own god with them, whom they worshiped in a separate temple. The exact time when the temple was built is not known. It is believed that it was either built by Hadrian in 130 or around 150. There was a sanctuary at the site of the temple. In the 4th century the temple was converted into a church.

On August 22, 2015, the terrorist organization Islamic State blew up the building.

Boulevard

Hadrian's Gate with Colonnade (2004), destroyed in 2015

The boulevard received its present form around 220 AD. It is about 1 km long. The streets in Palmyra were not paved like Roman streets elsewhere, but were made of pounded clay. The boulevard does not run straight in the typical Roman style, but bends twice: when the column street was built in several stages in the 2nd century, consideration had to be given to existing buildings. The changes in direction were concealed by the construction of the tetrapylon and the great Hadrian's Gate. Hadrian's Gate was built as the entrance to the boulevard in honor of the Roman Emperor Hadrian . The gate consisted of three arches, which were decorated with reliefs; it was blown up in autumn 2015 by members of the IS militia. Almost all the important buildings are located between Hadrian's Gate and the Tetrapylon. The road was 11 m wide at this point. The street was bordered by approximately 9.5 m high columns and bronze statues of Palmyric dignitaries. On the pillars there are small bases for statues of donors of the colonnade or of excellent Palmyreners, which are now lost. They were identified by inscriptions in two or three languages.

Temple of Nebo

To the southwest of the great Arch of Hadrian is the Temple of Nebo . Nebo was originally a Mesopotamian deity of scripture, wisdom and power who was equated with Apollo in Palmyra. The monumental entrance was on its south side and was oriented towards the Hellenistic city, which has so far hardly been explored. Access was through a six-column gate. The courtyard was laid out in a trapezoidal shape - the side of the portal was narrower than the back of the temple - and was made of tamped earth. In it was a well with a wide rim for ritual ablutions. The temple itself rose on a podium 2.15 m high and was surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns. One entered the cella via a monumental eleven-step flight of stairs. The lower steps carried a small altar, as in the temple of Baal. Inside the cella was the cult niche, flanked by two stair towers. Like the temple of Baal, the roof was flat and decorated with turrets and false gables. Today, only the floor plan with the truncated columns and parts of the south portal of the Nebo temple can be seen.

Thermal baths

The Baths of Diocletian are on the other side of the colonnaded street. The base area was 85 m × 51 m. The thermal baths were built towards the end of the 2nd century. Towards the end of the 3rd century, various renovations were carried out with new installations that led to the current name. The highlighted entrance in the form of a platform with four columns made of red granite protrudes into the column street. This was imported from Egypt. Inside the building there was a hot bath room with a hot water basin ( caldarium ). There was also a room for moderate heat, the tepidarium . There was no water basin in this. There was also a frigidarium , a cold water basin to cool off. Sports fields, lobby halls and relaxation rooms were also located in the bath complex. The water was supplied via an underground pipe. Today only a water basin can be seen.

Roman theater

The stage of the theater (2010)

To the west of the Säulenstrasse is the theater, which dates from the 2nd century AD. In the past it probably had a lot more rows of seats than today, some of which could have been made of wood. The rear wall of the stage is 48 m long and 10.50 m deep. It dates from the 3rd century. It represented the entrance to a palace with a central royal gate and two side doors. In addition to the two arched passageways, the theater had a central entrance that led under the rows of seats and looked out onto the circular street. The theater was used for plays, but also for animal and gladiator fights.

On July 4, 2015, a video was published showing a public execution of 25 Syrian soldiers by very young IS fighters (apparently among them young people) in front of an audience on the stage of the theater; There had been executions there before. In January 2017 the stage building was badly damaged by IS fighters; the extent of the destruction is currently unclear.

Agora

The agora was a square courtyard surrounded by colonnades. He had eleven entrances. The current complex was built on the site of the old agora in the early 2nd century. The oldest inscription found in this area dates to the late first century. At the south-west corner of the agora is a rectangular structure (14.20 by 12.10 m), the entrance of which is flanked by two columns. Perhaps it was the Palmyra Bouleuterion ; H. the meeting place of the "city council", but it was possibly also a banquet hall. The courtyard has stone benches and there were probably sacrifices in it.

Tetrapylon

Model of the tetrapylon, created using 3D printing.

The tetrapylon marked the intersection of the two main streets of Palmyra. It is considered to be the most beautiful tetrapylon that the Romans ever built. 16 slender columns made of pink granite, which comes from Aswan, formed four covered niches in which statues were formerly located. However, today's pillars are replicas, only one of the pillars was antique.

Between December 26, 2016 and January 10, 2017, the tetrapylon was largely destroyed, according to the Palmyra Monitor, probably by an intentional detonation by IS. Of the original four pylons, the eastern and southern ones have been completely destroyed and of the other two only two columns remain.

necropolis

In front of the gates outside the urban area, there are various grave fields, which are referred to as the north, south-east, south-west and west necropolis (the so-called "valley of graves") according to their location.

Funerary towers of the western necropolis

The tomb towers of the Western Necropolis are unique in the Middle East. According to the building inscriptions, the tombs were built between 9 BC. Erected to 128 AD. The tomb of Elahbel is the largest tower tomb. It had five floors, which were connected by narrow spiral stairs. Numerous dead found their final resting place in the tower. The burial towers were the burial house of a family. Poor Palmyren could rent tombs in one of the graves. The coffins were transported through shafts into the respective floor. The exterior of the towers was usually plain. Inside, however, the towers were richly decorated with architectural decor and sculptural decorations. For archeology, the burial towers contained a special feature: the remains of valuable textiles were found. This allows conclusions to be drawn about the trade connections of the Palmyrenians.

In September 2015 the terrorist organization Islamic State blew up a total of six tombs, including the three best preserved: The tomb of Iamblichus (83 AD), the tower of Elahbel (103 AD) and the tower of Kithot (44 AD) were destroyed. ).

Hypogea

In addition to the tomb towers, underground tombs (hypogea) were also built. According to the inscriptions, these were created between 81 and 232. About 90 of them have been found so far. Access was via stairs. The name of the founder and the date of creation were engraved on the monumental stone doors. The burial chambers were decorated with rich architectural ornaments or frescoes.

The best known is the hypogeum of the three brothers. It was created around the year 160 and was lavishly decorated with frescoes. Figures from Greek mythology who had a connection to the world of the dead are shown. For example, there are frescoes by Ganymede, who was kidnapped by Zeus on Mount Olympus, and by Achilles. Grave sites could also be rented in this grave. You can still see the inscriptions with the family names.

The grave of Burfa and Burli was built in 128 AD and is now in the National Museum of Damascus. The founders of the family were buried here with other family members. The grave consists of a long corridor from which niches branch off to the left and right. The burial niches were carved into the rock, walled up and decorated with a bust of the deceased. In addition, large stone sarcophagi were often placed in the hypogea towards the end of the 2nd century. In the main niche was the statue of the grave founder, the progenitor of the family. Mummies were also found in the graves; the funeral technique, however, was different than in Egypt.

Temple tombs

Most of the house graves are unsightly “heaps of rubble”. These originally had elaborately designed facades in the shape of a temple and an inner courtyard surrounded by columns. There were about as many house graves as there were burial towers. According to the building inscriptions, they were built between 143 and 253 AD. An example of a rebuilt house grave is the mortuary temple. This is very close to the Diocletian's camp at the end of the column street.

Qalʿat Ibn Maʿn

→ Main article : Qalʿat Ibn Maʿn

In the 13th century, the Muslims built a fortress about two kilometers from the ruins on a ridge to protect themselves against the crusaders. However, this castle was no longer of great importance. The Lebanese Druze prince Fachr ad-Din II (r. 1585–1633) expanded it into a castle-like residence in an attempt to expand his domain at the expense of the Ottomans.

Climate table

Palmyra
Climate diagram
J F. M. A. M. J J A. S. O N D.     21st   12 3     18th   15th 4th     21st   19th 7th     18th   25th 12     8.2   31 16     0.4   35 20th     0   38 22nd     0   38 22nd     0.3   34 19th     8.8   28 14th     16   20th 8th     20th   14th 4th Temperature in ° C ,  precipitation in mm Source: WMO ; wetterkontor.de

Average monthly temperatures and rainfall for Palmyra Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Max. Temperature ( ° C ) 12.1 14.7 19.4 25.2 30.7 35.4 38.1 37.9 34.4 28.3 19.9 13.5 O 25.9 Min. Temperature (° C) 2.5 3.8 6.9 11.5 15.9 19.8 21.5 21.6 19.1 14.3 7.7 3.5 O 12.4 Precipitation ( mm ) 20.8 18.4 21.2 18.3 8.2 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.3 8.8 16.1 20.2 Σ 132.7 Hours of sunshine ( h / d ) 5.3 6.6 7.4 8.6 10.3 12.1 12.3 11.7 9.9 8.5 7.1 5.3 O 8.8 Rainy days ( d ) 7th 10 6th 4th 2 0 0 0 0 3 5 7th Σ 44 Humidity ( % ) 73 64 54 33 39 34 37 39 42 45 56 72 O 49 Source: WMO ; wetterkontor.de

and display information about the image

Panorama of Palmyra, just after sunrise, April 2005

literature

• Max Bach : The grave tower of Elabelus and the grave tower of Jamlichus at Palmyra , oOuJ (1936).
• Iain Browning: Palmyra. Chatto + Windus, London 1979, ISBN 0-7011-2266-8 .
• Gérard Degeorge: Palmyra. Hirmer, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-7774-9340-6 .
• Peter Edwell: Between Rome and Persia. The middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman control. Routledge, London a. a. 2008, ISBN 978-0-415-42478-3 .
• Thorsten Fleck: The special empire of Palmyra. Its history as reflected in Roman coinage. In: Geldgeschichtliche Nachrichten 199, 2000, pp. 245-252.
• Udo Hartmann : The Palmyrenian Partial Kingdom (= Oriens et Occidens . Volume 2). Steiner, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-515-07800-2 (also: Berlin, Free University, dissertation, 2000).
• Emanuele Intagliata: Palmyra after Zenobia, AD 273-750. Oxbow, Oxford 2018, ISBN 978-1-78570942-5 .
• Jørgen Christian Meyer: Palmyrena. Palmyra and the Surrounding Territory from the Roman to the Early Islamic Period. Archaeopress, Oxford 2017.
• Ted Kaizer: The Religious Life of Palmyra (= Oriens et Occidens. Volume 4). Steiner, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-515-08027-9 .
• Andreas Kopp, Rubina Raja (ed.): The World of Palmyra (= Palmyrenske Studier. Volume 1). Copenhagen 2016.
• Kazimierz Michałowski with photos by Andrzej Dziewanowski: Palmyra. Arkady, Warsaw 1968.
• Frank Rainer Scheck, Johannes Odenthal: Syria. High cultures between the Mediterranean and the Arabian desert. 5th edition. DuMont, Ostfildern 2010, ISBN 978-3-7701-3978-1 .
• Andreas Schmidt-Colinet (Ed.): Palmyra. Cultural encounter in the border area , Mainz 2005. (Special issue Antike Welt / Zabern's illustrated books on archeology ), ISBN 3-8053-1762-X .
• Michael Sommer : Palmyra. Biography of a lost city. Philipp von Zabern, Darmstadt 2017, ISBN 978-3-8053-5114-0 .
• Michael Sommer: Palmyra. In: Real Lexicon for Antiquity and Christianity . Volume 26, Hiersemann, Stuttgart 2015, ISBN 978-3-7772-1509-9 , Sp. 848-872.
• Michael Sommer: The Lion of Tadmor. Palmyra and the improbable rise of Septimius Odaenathus. In: Historical magazine . Vol. 287, No. 2, 2008, pp. 281-318, doi : 10.1524 / hzhz.2008.0043 .
• Michael Sommer: Rome's oriental steppe border. Palmyra - Edessa - Dura-Europos - Hatra. A cultural history from Pompey to Diocletian. Steiner, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 978-3-515-08724-7 .
• Javier Teixidor: The Pantheon of Palmyra (= Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Émpire romain. Vol. 79). Brill, Leiden 1979, ISBN 90-04-05987-3 .
• Theodor Wiegand (Ed.): Palmyra - Results of the Expeditions of 1902 and 1917, Vol. I. Textband , Vol. II. Tafelband (Archaeological Institute of the German Empire, Istanbul Department), with 183 illustrations in the text and a map, by Daniel Krencker , Otto Puchstein , Bruno Schulz , Carl Watzinger , Theodor Wiegand and Karl Wulzinger, Keller, Berlin 1932.
• Erwin M. Ruprechtsberger, Sebastian Scherzer: From the Lebanon Mountains to the Syrian Desert: Hosn Sfiri, Palmyra, Qasr Al-Ayr Al-Sharqi (= Linz archaeological research. Special issue 49). Nordico Stadtmuseum Linz, Linz 2014, ISBN 978-3-85484-597-3 .
• Paul Veyne : Palmyra. Requiem for a city. Beck, Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-406-69237-6 .
• Jean-Baptiste Yon: Les Notables de Palmyre (= Bibliothèque archéologique et historique. Volume 163). Institut français d'archéologie du proche-orient, Beirut 2002, ISBN 2-912738-19-9 .

Web links

Commons : Palmyra  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

Wiktionary: Palmyra  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

• Entry on the UNESCO World Heritage Center website ( English and French ).
• Palmyra - The queen of the desert . In: Treasures of the World , episode 134
• Pictures from Palmyra . In: Geo travel community
• Virtual 360 ° tour of Palmyra (2007)
• Marcus G. Meyer: Palmyra - Tour through an ancient city . In: Archaeologie-Online.de, December 16, 2000
• Agnes Henning: The tower tombs of Palmyra . Dissertation, University of Cologne , 2001
• Dirk Kinet:  Palmyra / Tadmor. In: Michaela Bauks, Klaus Koenen, Stefan Alkier (Eds.): The Scientific Biblical Lexicon on the Internet (WiBiLex), Stuttgart 2006 ff.
• Bundeskunsthalle : From Mosul to Palmyra - A virtual journey through the world cultural heritage

Remarks

1. ↑ spiegel.de May 20, 2015: War in Syria: IS fighters conquer the ancient city of Palmyra
2. ^ SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg Germany: Syria: Regime troops recapture Palmyra completely from IS. In: SPIEGEL ONLINE. Retrieved November 11, 2016 . 
3. ^ Russian concert in Syria. In: FAZ , May 5, 2016.
4. ↑ Time online: IS moves back into Palmyra. In: time online. Retrieved December 10, 2016 . 
5. ↑ FAZ.net March 2, 2017: Kremlin: IS completely expelled from Palmyra
6. ↑ Syria uncovers 'largest church'. In: BBC News . November 14, 2008, accessed February 8, 2015 . 
7. ^ Richard Stoneman: Palmyra and its Empire. Zenohia's Revolt against Rome. Ann Arbor 1992, p. 56.
8. ↑ ^{a b} Shiruku Rōdo-gaku Kenkyū Sentā: Space archeology 1995, p. 19.
9. ↑ Direction générale des antiquités et des musées, République arabe syrienne: Annales archéologiques Arabes Syriennes, Volume 42 ( ar ) 1996, p. 246.
10. ↑ Hartmut Kühne, Rainer Maria Czichon, Florian Janoscha Kreppner: Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archeology of the Ancient Near East, March 29 - April 3, 2004, Freie Universität Berlin: The reconstruction of environment: natural resources and human interrelations through time; art history: visual communication 2008, p. 229.
11. ↑ Lucinda Dirven: The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria 1999, p. 17.
12. ↑ Pliny, Naturalis Historia 5, 21.
13. ↑ See Michael Sommer : Palmyra. In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum 26 (2015), here Sp. 848 f.
14. ↑ For a summary of the name, see Michael Sommer: Palmyra. In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum 26 (2015), here Sp. 848 f. See also Peter Edwell: Between Rome and Persia. London 2008, p. 47f. and especially M. O'Connor: The etymologies of Tadmor and Palmyra. In: Yoël L. Arbeitman (Ed.): A Linguistic Happening in Memory of Ben Schwartz: Studies in Anatolian, Italic, and Other Indo-European Languages. Louvain 1988, pp. 235ff.
15. ^ M. O'Connor: The etymologies of Tadmor and Palmyra. In: Yoël L. Arbeitman (Ed.): A Linguistic Happening in Memory of Ben Schwartz: Studies in Anatolian, Italic, and Other Indo-European Languages. Louvain 1988, p. 238.
16. ^ M. O'Connor: The etymologies of Tadmor and Palmyra. In: Yoël L. Arbeitman (Ed.): A Linguistic Happening in Memory of Ben Schwartz: Studies in Anatolian, Italic, and Other Indo-European Languages. Louvain 1988, p. 236 ff.
17. ↑ Guy Le Strange: Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from AD 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers 1890, p. 541.
18. ↑ Michael Sommer: Palmyra. In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum 26 (2015), Sp. 850.
19. ↑ Michael P. Streck : Palmyra. In: Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Aräologie . Volume 10. Berlin / New York 2003-2005, pp. 292f.
20. ↑ Dietz-Otto Edzard : Gods and Myths in the Middle East. Stuttgart 1965, p. 431; Javier Teixidor: The Pantheon of Palmyra. Leiden 1979, p. 1 ff.
21. ^ Ted Kaizer: The Religious Life of Palmyra (Oriens et Occidens 4). Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-515-08027-9 , pp. 67-78.
22. ↑ See Michael Sommer: Palmyra. In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum 26 (2015), Sp. 856 f.
23. ↑ Michael Sommer: Palmyra. In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum 26 (2015), Sp. 852 f.
24. ↑ For the 3rd century Udo Hartmann is fundamental: Das Palmyrenische Teilreich . Stuttgart 2001.
25. ^ For a summary, see Michael Sommer: Palmyra. In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum 26 (2015), Sp. 854–856.
26. ↑ Cf. in summary Michael Sommer: The Lion of Tadmor. Palmyra and the improbable rise of Septimius Odaenathus . In: Historische Zeitschrift 287 (2008), pp. 281–318, here p. 309 ff.
27. ↑ Udo Hartmann: The Palmyrenian Partial Kingdom . Stuttgart 2001, p. 242 ff.
28. ↑ On Aurelian's military intervention see Udo Hartmann: Das Palmyrenische Teilreich . Stuttgart 2001, p. 364 ff.
29. ↑ For this and the following story see Emanuele Intagliata: Palmyra after Zenobia, AD 273-750. Oxford 2018, p. 97 ff.
30. ↑ On the development in Christian times cf. Michael Sommer: Palmyra. In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum 26 (2015), Sp. 865ff.
31. ↑ John Malalas 18.2
32. ↑ Rainer Schreg: The complete destruction of Apamea on the Orontes: Syria in April 2013 . In: Archaeologik . April 30, 2013.
33. ↑ Rainer Schreg: "It was night and there were snakes ..." In: Archaeologik , November 15, 2010.
34. ↑ Jürg Bischoff: Palmyra in the hands of the jihadists . In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung . May 21, 2015.
35. ^ Islamic State crisis: 'Mines planted in Syria's Palmyra'. In: BBC News . June 21, 2015, accessed June 21, 2015 . 
36. ↑ IS destroys famous lion sculpture from Palmyra. In: ORF , July 2, 2015.
37. ↑ See: Holger Wienholz: Declaration by the “Orient” working group of the German Association of Archaeologists (DArV) on the occasion of the events in Palmyra . In: German Association for Archeology : Focus on Archeology 4/2015. ISSN 2364-4796, p. 284.
38. ↑ Pictures show destroyed temple complexes in Palmyra . In: The world . August 25, 2015.
39. ↑ IS terrorists blow up the temple of Baal in Palmyra . In: Süddeutsche Zeitung .
40. ↑ UN confirm destruction of the famous Palmyra temples . In: The time . September 1, 2015.
41. ↑ Syrian authorities: ISIS jihadists blow up triumphal arch in Palmyra. In: Spiegel Online . October 5, 2015, accessed October 5, 2015 . 
42. ^ Advance into the ancient oasis city: Assad troops evidently advance to Palmyra. In: tagesschau.de. March 24, 2016. Retrieved March 27, 2016 . 
43. ↑ Regime troops recapture Palmyra completely from IS. In: Spiegel Online . March 27, 2016, accessed March 27, 2016 . 
44. ↑ IS fighters are said to have recaptured Palmyra. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung , December 11, 2016.
45. ↑ Isis destroys tetrapylon monument in Palmyra In: theguardian.com January 20, 2017. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
46. ↑ Syrian army now advancing toward Palmyra castle. Retrieved March 1, 2017 . 
47. ↑ Palmyra again completely in Syrian hands , zeit.de, March 2, 2017.
48. ^ IS distributed again according to information from Russia , tagesschau.de, March 2, 2017.
49. ↑ http://www.deutschlandfunk.de/campus-karriere.679.de.html?drbm:date=2017-08-15
50. ↑ Dietz Otto Edzard : Gods and Myths in the Middle East. Stuttgart 1965, p. 431.
51. ↑ Aedeen Cremin: Archaeologica . Frances Lincoln Ltd, ISBN 978-0-7112-2822-1 , pp. 187 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
52. ↑ "Islamic State" blows up the historic Baal temple. In: Die Zeit , August 24, 2015.
53. ↑ Islamic State 'murders 25 men in Palmyra' . In: BBC News . 4th July 2015.
54. ↑ http://www.palmyra-monitor.net/isis-destroyed-the-tetrapylon-and-part-of-the-roman-theater-in-palmyra/
55. ↑ https://archinect.com/news/article/149995140/palmyra-recaptured-from-isis-first-photos-show-level-of-destruction/
56. ↑ IS jihadists blow up burial towers in Palmyra. In: Spiegel Online , September 4, 2015.