Zenobia

The title of this article is ambiguous. Further meanings are listed under Zenobia (disambiguation) .

Antoninian of Zenobia as Augusta .

Septimia Zenobia ( Palmyrenic spṭymy 'btzby , ancient Greek Σεπτιμία Ζηνοβία ; born around 240 in Palmyra in Syria ; died 272/73 or after 274 in Rome ) was ruler of Palmyra and the Roman Orient of Asia Minor from 267/68 to 272 AD to Egypt . She was the second wife of the exarch of the oasis city of Palmyra, Septimius Odaenathus . Her Aramaic name was Bat-Zabbai.

After Odaenathus' assassination (267), Zenobia expanded the Palmyrene Empire by conquering countries under Roman rule, such as Arabia and Egypt . This led to a conflict with the Roman emperor Aurelian , who defeated them in a campaign in AD 272. Due to contradicting sources, it is unclear whether she died on the transport to Rome or survived the journey there and lived on in Italy.

The fact that Zenobia Palmyra was able to develop into a threatening size and economic prosperity for Rome makes her one of the most famous ancient female figures.

Life

Early years

Zenobia was the daughter of an Antiochus. Her wedding to Odaenathus took place around AD 255. Of the children she bore to her husband, only her son Vaballathus is mentioned in the primary sources (inscriptions, coins, papyri) , but he appears less in the literary sources than her younger, historically less significant sons Herennianus and Timolaus . In addition, according to the Byzantine historian Johannes Zonaras , Zenobia also had daughters about whom little is known.

Odaenathus proved to be an important military support for the central power of the crisis- ridden Roman Empire , successfully fighting usurpers and securing the empire's eastern border against attacks by the Persian Sassanids . He rose to the corrector totius Orientis and was thus de facto the emperor's deputy and the most powerful ruler in the Roman Orient. His large Palmyrene sub-kingdom was an almost entirely autonomous part of the Roman Empire. It extended in the northwest over Emesa , in the south to Damascus and Petra , north of it over the Syrian desert to the Euphrates and therefore dominated the caravan routes that led from Palmyra to the Persian Gulf to Dura Europos on the Euphrates. During Odaenathus' lifetime, his wife Zenobia played no political role.

The exact time and place as well as the background to the murder of Odaenathus and his eldest son from his first marriage, Herodianus (Hairan), which took place in AD 267 , cannot be determined with certainty due to contradicting sources. He was probably killed as a result of an argument with a relative of his clan; a Roman initiative to remove the Palmyrenian ruler, who had become too powerful, would also be possible. On the other hand, the anonymous and unreliable Historia Augusta claim that Zenobia was the instigator of the murders is less plausible .

Ruler Palmyras

The empire disintegrated into three parts in 272 AD with the Gallic (green) and Palmyrenian (yellow) parts.

After Odaenathus' death, Zenobia took over the guardianship of her underage son Vaballathus . Although the function of “ruler of the Orient” was not inheritable, like her husband before she ruled over a considerable part of the Roman Orient, especially over the province of Syria . Due to serious domestic and foreign policy problems in Europe, Emperor Gallienus did not intervene against Zenobia's seizure of power, even if he was apparently very interested in reducing Palmyra's influence. Another 268 he was murdered in an officers' conspiracy; Claudius Gothicus followed him. For her part, the ruler of the Palmyrenean part recognized the Roman emperors, but gradually began to exploit the aforementioned crisis of the Roman Empire to expand her sphere of influence.

Zenobia was very educated and, according to the Historia Augusta, mastered Greek, Egyptian and Latin in addition to her native Palmyrenic. The Middle Platonic philosopher Longinos was active as a (political) advisor at her court . Furthermore, Zenobia cultivated relations with the heretically condemned bishop of Antioch, Paulus of Samosata , who is said to have converted her to Judaism , but this is unbelievable. The historian Kallinikos of Petra , who is said to have dedicated a ten-book exposition of the history of Alexandria that has not survived, and Nikostratus of Trebizond , whose historical work described the fighting with Persia between 244 and 260, may also have stayed at her court .

During the early reign of Claudius Gothicus, Zenobia did not change anything in the status quo of her relationship with Rome. The mint of Antioch , for example, worked normally and minted coins on which Claudius Gothicus was depicted. The Palmyren monarch, who is responsible for the founding of the two neighboring fortresses Halabiya (then named after her Zenobia ) and Zalabiya on the Euphrates, began about the beginning of 270 with the subjugation of Arabia, which was under Roman sovereignty . Their army devastated the Roman Temple of Jupiter and Hammon at Bosra and advanced south from there. This is shown by wells for troop contingents that were discovered on the road from Bosra to Philadelpheia .

In the same year 270, when Claudius Gothicus was still Roman emperor, Palmyren military units under the leadership of the Zabdas set out to conquer Egypt , relying on the support of the sympathetic Egyptian Timagenes . They took advantage of the fact that the praefectus Aegypti Tenagino Probus was absent because he was fighting pirates, defeated an Egyptian army and occupied the Nile country. The army of Zenobia then withdrew again, but now Timagenes defended Egypt for them with an important force. The advancing Tenagino Probus initially achieved military success, but was then ambushed by Timagenes and probably committed suicide after being captured. In this way Zenobia was able to maintain her rule over Egypt.

According to the Historia Augusta , Zenobia allegedly claimed to be a descendant of Cleopatra and thus the Ptolemaic . She also reintroduced the Ptolemaic currency as a means of payment in Egypt. According to some modern researchers, however, it is said to have proclaimed its descent from the important Seleucid king Antiochus IV on inscriptions , a hypothesis that the ancient historian Bruno Bleckmann rejects.

In addition to the southern advance into Arabia and Egypt, conquests were made in the north of the Palmyrenian empire, with parts of eastern Asia Minor , such as Cilicia and the city of Tyana , as far as Ankyra, Zenobia's sphere of influence. An advance into western Asia Minor in around 271 failed, however.

Meanwhile, after Claudius Gothicus, who died of the plague , and the subsequent brief reign of his successor Quintillus , Aurelian came to the Roman imperial throne in 270 . In the following year 271 coins minted in Antioch and Alexandria show the heads of Aurelian and Zenobia's son Vaballathus. The latter bears the resounding titles “King”, “Imperator” and “General of the Romans” on these coins, as in the documents of that time, but not yet the Augustus title , which shows that Aurelian's sovereignty was still recognized.

From this circumstance Jacqueline F. Long concludes that Zenobia did not revolt against Rome and that her military action was perhaps originally triggered by conflicts with Arab tribes; she may have expected the central Roman government to accept her actions. Bruno Bleckmann, on the other hand, assumes that Zenobia for the time being shied away from a complete break with Aurelian, but ultimately sought the usurpation of rule over the entire Roman Empire for Vaballathus. The same ancient historian therefore rejects scholarly opinions, according to which Zenobia's goal for her son was only the government of an intermediate Palmyrenian empire mediating between Rome and Persia. As has often been postulated, she did not want to continue the Hellenistic tradition of rule, for example by considering the creation of a Roman-Hellenistic intermediate empire based on the model of that of Cleopatra and her lover, the triumvir Marcus Antonius .

Disempowerment by Aurelian

As soon as Emperor Aurelian had permanently secured the Danube border by giving up the imperial territories north of the Danube , especially those Daciens , he did not proceed against the Gallic Empire, but opened a campaign against them at the beginning of 272 with armed forces consisting in particular of the core troops of the Danube Army Zenobia apparently classified by him as much more dangerous. At the latest, she had Vaballathus proclaimed Augustus and himself Augusta . With this title mother and son appear on coins.

The detailed, generally quite reliable report of the pagan historian Zosimos , who wrote around 500 AD and which probably goes back to Eunapios of Sardis , is available about Aurelian's war against Zenobia . The fact that Zosimos' source depicts the Palmyrenian conditions well is shown by the fact that their information on the position of the general Zabdas agrees with those of the inscription on two statues that Zabdas and the city commander Septimius Zabbai had erected for Odaenathus and Zenobia. In addition, the Historia Augusta also gives a more detailed account of Aurelian's campaign in the east, in which there are no gross contradictions to the story of Zosimos, but occasionally inserts about the alleged intervention of supernatural forces.

Zenobia's military forces, of which the heavily armored Palmyrene cavalry and archers were particularly dangerous, were concentrated in Syria. The ruler also had rich treasures.

The Roman emperor first advanced to Asia Minor, occupied Ankyra without resistance and was then able to take the resisting Tyana through the betrayal of the citizen Heraklammon, but exercised mildness towards the inhabitants of the conquered city. The Palmyrenian army, which included Zabdas, who was in charge of the military operations, as well as Zenobia himself, awaited the opposing forces in the valley of the Orontes River (today's Nahr al-Asi). The approaching Aurelian apparently intended to cut off Antioch. As a result, around May 272, the military exchange of blows took place near Immae not far from Antioch. The Roman cavalry initially carried out a pseudo escape and then turned surprisingly and successfully against the heavy Palmyrenian cavalry pursuing them, which was actually superior to them, but was now exhausted. Through this maneuver, the Romans achieved victory.

Zabdas fled to Antioch with the remaining part of his defeated army, intending to hide the defeat from his inhabitants, and then retreated to Emesa with Zenobia. His cavalry was able to develop fully on the extensive plains there. Aurelian meanwhile occupied Antioch, pardoned the followers of Zenobia there, defeated a Palmyrenian army at the nearby Daphne , which was supposed to inhibit his progress, and then set out for Emesa, where the supposedly 70,000 strong army of Zenobia was encamped. There it came to the next battle. The Palmyren in turn had the stronger cavalry. This threw back Aurelian's Dalmatian and Moorish cavalry, which had initiated a flank movement so that the Roman army was not outflanked. However, Zenobia's cavalry then pursued the enemy impetuously, which caused the Palmyrenian position to get into disorder and the attack of the Roman foot troops could not withstand. This secured Aurelian's renewed victory. Zenobia and Zabdas, who now found a hostile mood in Emesa, managed to retreat to Palmyra. The emperor advancing into Emesa discovered large funds there that the ruler, who had fled in a hurry, had not been able to take with her.

Around the middle of 272 Aurelian advanced towards Palmyra, but suffered considerable losses during the necessary desert march due to raids by Bedouins . According to literary tradition, he is said to have besieged Zenobia for a long time, but according to archaeological findings, the defenses of Palmyra were not strong enough to defend against the emperor's forces. In any case, in a hopeless situation, Zenobia had asked the Sassanids for support. Aurelian, however, managed to repel a contingent of troops sent by this enemy. The Palmyrenian monarch, who - according to the representation of Zosimos - had apparently not played a particularly leading role in the entire defensive struggle, now sought her salvation in the flight to the Persian Empire. On fast dromedaries she and her entourage reached the Euphrates, where the escape by Roman horsemen who had pursued them came to an end. Her pursuers brought her back and she was brought before Aurelian. According to Zosimos, Aurelian's joy at seeing her should have been limited, since he believed that his triumph over just one woman would not bring him much fame. The citizenship of Palmyra surrendered and was initially treated mildly.

Uncertain later fate

Zenobia had to accompany Aurelian to Emesa as well as her son Vaballathus and some distinguished followers, above all her general Zabdas and her political advisor, the philosopher Longinos. On trial in Emesa, the disempowered ruler shifted responsibility for her ambitious plans to expand the Palmyrene Empire to her advisors. Several of these were then executed, including Longinos, who valiantly accepted his conviction. The emperor spared the life of Zenobia because he considered the execution of a woman to be unworthy; instead it was to be presented to the onlookers in his triumphal procession in Rome. Not long after Aurelian's departure from Palmyra instigated by Septimius Apsaios, another attempt at revolt by the Palmyren, in which a member of the ruling house, Antiochus-Achilles, was proclaimed emperor, was quickly suppressed, whereupon Aurelian had the rebellious city destroyed.

Sources differ about Zenobia's future fate. Zosimos states that the Queen died on the transport to Rome as a result of illness or her refusal to eat; Noble Palmyrenians who rebelled with her at the time drowned in a shipwreck on the crossing to Byzantium . According to the other surviving sources, Zenobia is said to have survived the journey unharmed and to have been presented by Aurelian after the elimination of the Gallic Empire in 274 together with the Gallic usurper Tetricus I in a triumphal procession in Rome. On this occasion she was heavily hung with jewels and shown to the Roman people wearing gold chains. Zonaras teaches about both versions. The Eastern Roman historian Johannes Malalas claims in a historically unusable note in his world chronicle that Zenobia was beheaded in triumph after its presentation. According to the Historia Augusta and other testimonies, she spent her old age appropriately on an estate not far from Hadrian's villa near Tivoli and died, allegedly at an advanced age, in exile in Italy.

While the classical philologist Rudolf Hanslik, for example, prefers the version of Zenobia's performance in Aurelian's Triumph and her survival in Italy as the more credible line of transmission, the ancient historian Bruno Bleckmann considers the tradition that Zosimos reproduces, which is less recognized in modern research, to be more likely.

Members of the Zenobias family can be traced back to the end of the 4th century. They could be the descendants of those daughters of Zenobia, who, according to Zonaras, were brought to Rome and married senators there. For example, L. Septimia Patabiniana Balbilla Tyria Nepotilla Odaenathiana , who had died as a child and belonged to the urban Roman nobility of the 4th century, came from Zenobia's family.

swell

Apart from the primary sources such as inscriptions, coins and papyri as well as remarks from late antique breviary (among others by Eutropius ) and Byzantine chroniclers ( Georgios Synkellos , Johannes Zonaras ) the two main sources on the life of Zenobia are the often very unreliable Historia Augusta and the report of the historian Zosimos im first book of his Historia nea . The authors of both of the latter representations were pagans who lived in late antiquity , when Christianity was already largely established.

The Historia Augusta deals in more detail with Zenobia in the Vita of Aurelian and also dedicates Chapter 30 of the report on the "thirty tyrants", usurpers who, due to his weakness, would have seized power throughout the Roman Empire during the time of Emperor Gallienus. These usurpers even included two women, one of whom was Zenobia. This is portrayed as a heroic oriental monarch who was present at army meetings, and is set in parallel to the mythical rulers Dido and Semiramis as well as to the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, who was allegedly her ancestor. With the stylization of Zenobia as an Amazon-like opponent of the feeble Gallienus, the unknown author of the Historia Augusta wants to demonstrate the dissolution of the system of rule that allegedly occurred during his reign and for this purpose manipulates the actual historical temporal relationships, since Zenobia in truth only realized her ambitious political plans under Aurelian sought. According to the same author, Zenobia was also very chaste; she had sexual intercourse with her husband only for the purpose of conception and otherwise not surrendered to him.

Zosimos took the historian Polybius , who reports on the rise of Rome to a world power, as his model, but considered himself a chronicler of the decline of the Roman Empire. The fact that Aurelian was able to successfully take action against Zenobia, but that Rome had to suffer heavy defeats against “barbaric” armies from the late 4th century onwards, was - according to the remarks of Zosimos - by pagan circles of neglect of the old religion and that since Constantine the Great attributed to the advancing Christianization of the empire.

reception

Queen Zenobia's last look towards Palmyra ,
history painting by Herbert Schmalz

A woman who opposed Rome also inspired the imagination of later generations; her life story was partly transfigured into a myth. In Western Europe, the literary exploitation of the life of the ancient ruler began in the second half of the 14th century. First, the Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio took on the life of Zenobia by including it in his work De mulieribus claris (1356-1364), a biographical collection of 106 famous mythological and historical women. Another Italian poet of the time, Francesco Petrarca , briefly mentions the Palmyren monarch in his Trionfo della Fama (2, 108ff.). The English poet Geoffrey Chaucer touched on the subject in The monk's tale , which is one of his Canterbury Tales (1386–1400). He has a monk report on Zenobia, among other things, using her representation in Boccaccio's De mulieribus claris as an almost literal model.

In the centuries that followed, the English writer William Painter ( Palace of Pleasure , 1566/67), the Spanish playwright Pedro Calderón de la Barca ( La gran Cenobia , 1625), the French author François Hédelin, abbe d 'Aubignac ( Zénobie , 1647) and the German authors Georg Döring ( Zenobia. A tragedy in five acts , 1823) and Adolf von Wilbrandt ( The Master of Palmyra , 1889). Apparently unpublished was an adaptation of the material by Josef Viktor Widmann , who wrote to Gottfried Keller on March 23, 1877 : “This winter I wrote a drama, Zenobia . The fabric seems to be an often used one; but my poem has almost nothing in common with any of the previous arrangements, in fact almost approaches comedy in that I have introduced a useful novella by Boccaccio into the whole. Sometimes it seems to me that it has become something pretty; sometimes I fear that I may be wrong and that it doesn't matter much. It stays in front of the hand. "

The life of the oriental monarch found musical adaptation through the operas Zenobia, regina de 'Palmireni (1694) by Tomaso Albinoni , Zenobia in Palmira (1710 or 1711) by Fortunato Chelleri , Zenobia in Palmira (1725) by Leonardo Leo , and Zenobia di Palmira (1789) by Pasquale Anfossi , Zenobia in Palmira (1790) by Giovanni Paisiello and Aureliano in Palmira by Gioachino Rossini . The latter work, the libretto of which is probably by Felice Romani , was premiered on December 26, 1813 at La Scala in Milan .

Probably the most important contribution to the reception of Zenobia in the visual arts is the three-part cycle of paintings by the Venetian painter Giovanni Battista Tiepolo from around 1730, which showed the Palmyrenian ruler, among other things, in an address to her soldiers and at the triumph of Emperor Aurelian.

The Zenobia fabric has also been widely used in the more recent reception:

• The Victorian age stylized Zenobia as a virtuous mother of the country.
• Film: Under the sign of Rome. USA 1959, with Anita Ekberg as Zenobia. The monumental film describes the regent as suffering from the burden of her office.
• In today's Syria it is used as an instrument for the emancipation of women.
• In 1995 Nick Dear wrote a piece that premiered in London with Zenobia as the title heroine.
• The Leipzig student union ADV Zenobia is named after the Queen of Palmyra.
• The plant genus Zenobia D. Don from the family of the heather plants (Ericaceae) is named after her.

literature

• Nathanael J. Andrade: Zenobia. Shooting Star of Palmyra. Oxford University Press, New York 2018, ISBN 978-0-19-063881-8 .
• Bruno Bleckmann : The Severan family and the soldier emperors . In: Hildegard Temporini-Countess Vitzthum (Hrsg.): Die Kaiserinnen Roms. From Livia to Theodora. Munich 2002, ISBN 3-406-49513-3 (Zenobia: pp. 317-333).
• Michael Dallapiazza: Zenobia. In: Peter von Möllendorff , Annette Simonis, Linda Simonis (ed.): Historical figures of antiquity. Reception in literature, art and music (= Der Neue Pauly . Supplements. Volume 8). Metzler, Stuttgart / Weimar 2013, ISBN 978-3-476-02468-8 , Sp. 1057-1064.
• Thorsten Fleck: The special empire of Palmyra. Its history as reflected in Roman coinage . In: Geldgeschichtliche Nachrichten (GN) 199, 2000, pp. 245-252. ISSN  0435-1835 .
• Rudolf Hanslik , Klaus Wegenast : Zenobia 2). In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XA, Stuttgart 1972, Sp. 1-8.
• Udo Hartmann : The Palmyrenische Teilreich (= Oriens et Occidens . Volume 2). Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2001.
• Ted Kaizer: The religious Life of Palmyra. A study of the social patterns of worship in the Roman period . Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-515-08027-9 .
• Tadeusz Kotula: Aurélien et Zénobie. L'unité or the division de l'Empire? Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, Wrocław 1997, ISBN 83-229-1638-8 .
• Josef Rist :  Zenobia, ruler of Palmyra. In: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL). Volume 14, Bautz, Herzberg 1998, ISBN 3-88309-073-5 , Sp. 412-417.
• Eugenia Equini Schneider: Septimia Zenobia Sebaste. L'Erma di Bretschneider, Rome 1993, ISBN 88-7062-812-4 .
• Michael Sommer : Rome's oriental steppe border. Palmyra - Edessa - Dura-Europos - Hatra. a cultural history from Pompey to Diocletian (= Oriens et Occidens. Volume 9). Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 978-3-515-08724-7 .
• Pat Southern: Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen . Continuum, London / New York 2008 (popular science overview).
• Anja Wieber: The Augusta from the desert - the Palmyrenian ruler Zenobia . In: Thomas Späth , Beate Wagner-Hasel (ed.): Women's worlds in antiquity. Gender order and female life practice . Metzler, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-476-02175-0 , pp. 281-310.
• Ernest Will : Les Palmyréniens. La Venise des sables (Ier siècle avant – IIIème siècle après J.-C.). Colin, Paris 1992, ISBN 2-200-21224-0 .
• Rex Winsbury: Zenobia of Palmyra: history, myth and the neo-classical imagination. Duckworth; London 2010, ISBN 978-0-7156-3853-8 .
• Yasamin Zahran: Zenobia between reality and legend. Archaeopress, Oxford 2003, ISBN 1-84171-537-9 .

Web links

Commons : Zenobia  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

• Literature by and about Zenobia in the catalog of the German National Library
• Jacqueline F. Long: Short biography (English) at De Imperatoribus Romanis (with references).
• Georg Döring: Zenobia. A tragedy in five acts (1823) in the Internet Archive

Remarks

1. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (CIS) II 3971.
2. ↑ So z. B. Historia Augusta , Aurelian 38, 1.
3. ↑ Historia Augusta , Aurelian 38, 1; Historia Augusta , Die 30 Tyrannen 15, 2 u. ö.
4. ^ Zonaras 12:27.
5. ^ Rudolf Hanslik : Zenobia 2). In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XA, Stuttgart 1972, column 2.
6. ↑ Historia Augusta , Die 30 Tyrannen 17, 2; also Eutropius 9, 13, 2.
7. ↑ See e.g. B. Bruno Bleckmann , Die Kaiserinnen Roms , p. 325 and Rudolf Hanslik: Zenobia 2). In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XA, Stuttgart 1972, column 1 f.
8. ^ Zosimos 1:39 , 2; Historia Augusta , Aurelian 38, 1.
9. ↑ Bruno Bleckmann, Die Kaiserinnen Roms , pp. 325f .; Rudolf Hanslik: Zenobia 2). In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XA, Stuttgart 1972, column 2 f.
10. ^ Rudolf Hanslik: Zenobia 2). In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XA, Stuttgart 1972, Sp. 5-7. For both historians see the remarks by Pawel Janiszewski: The Missing Link. Greek Pagan Historiography in the Second Half of the Third Century and in the Fourth Century AD. Warsaw 2006.
11. ↑ Prokop , De bello Persico 2, 5, 4; De aedificiis 2, 8, 8f.
12. ↑ John Malalas 12, p. 299
13. ^ Zosimos 1:44, 1; Historia Augusta , Claudius Gothicus 11, 1f.
14. ↑ So Zonaras 12:27; according to the Historia Augusta ( Claudius Gothicus 11, 2), however, the Roman prefect was killed.
15. ↑ Historia August , Die 30 Tyrannen 30, 2.
16. ^ Rudolf Hanslik: Zenobia 2). In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XA, Stuttgart 1972, column 4.
17. ↑ Bruno Bleckmann, Die Kaiserinnen Roms , p. 328.
18. ^ Zosimos 1:50, 1.
19. ↑ Jacqueline F. Long: Short biography (English) with De Imperatoribus Romanis (with references).
20. ↑ Bruno Bleckmann, Die Kaiserinnen Roms , p. 327f.
21. ^ Zosimos 1: 50-56.
22. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes 3, 1030.
23. ↑ Historia Augusta , Aurelian 22-30.
24. ↑ Zosimos 1:50, 3; among others
25. ^ Zosimos 1:50, 1f .; Historia Augusta , Aurelian 22ff.
26. ↑ Zosimos 1:50, 2ff .; Eutropius 9, 13, 2; Hieronymus , Chronik ad annum 273; among others
27. ^ Zosimos 1, 51f .; Historia Augusta , Aurelian 25, 1.
28. ^ Zosimos 1, 52f .; Historia Augusta , Aurelian 25, 2f.
29. ^ Zosimos 1, 54, 1f.
30. ↑ Zenobia [2]. In: The New Pauly (DNP). Volume 12/2, Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01487-8 , column 733.
31. ^ Zosimos 1, 54ff .; Historia Augusta , Aurelian 26ff.
32. ^ Zosimos 1, 56, 2f .; Historia Augusta , Aurelian 30, 1ff.
33. ^ Zosimos 1, 60f .; Historia Augusta , Aurelian 31, 1ff.
34. ^ Zosimos 1:59, 1.
35. ↑ Historia Augusta , Aurelian 33f. and The Thirty Tyrants 30, 24ff .; Eutropius 9, 13, 2; Hieronymus, Chronicle ad annum 274; among others
36. ^ Zonaras 12:27.
37. ↑ Malalas 12, p. 300
38. ↑ Historia Augusta , Die 30 Tyrannen 30, 27; Eutropius 9, 13, 2; Hieronymus, Chronicle ad annum 274; among others
39. ^ Rudolf Hanslik: Zenobia 2). In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XA, Stuttgart 1972, Sp. 5.
40. ↑ Bruno Bleckmann, Die Kaiserinnen Roms , p. 331.
41. ↑ Bruno Bleckmann, Die Kaiserinnen Roms , p. 332.
42. ↑ Bruno Bleckmann, Die Kaiserinnen Roms , p. 319f.
43. ↑ Bruno Bleckmann, Die Kaiserinnen Roms , pp. 332f.
44. ↑ Michael Dallapiazza: Zenobia provides an overview of the history of reception . In: Peter von Möllendorff , Annette Simonis, Linda Simonis (ed.): Historical figures of antiquity. Reception in literature, art and music (= Der Neue Pauly . Supplements. Volume 8). Metzler, Stuttgart / Weimar 2013, ISBN 978-3-476-02468-8 , Sp. 1057-1064.
45. ↑ Gottfried Keller Portal of the University of Zurich , accessed on February 5, 2018
46. ↑ Zenobia . In: Eric M. Moormann, Wilfried Uitterhoeve: Lexicon of ancient figures. With their continued life in art, poetry and music (= Kröner's pocket edition . Volume 468). Kröner, Stuttgart 1995, ISBN 3-520-46801-8 , pp. 706ff.
47. ↑ Lotte Burkhardt: Directory of eponymous plant names - Extended Edition. Part I and II. Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin , Freie Universität Berlin , Berlin 2018, ISBN 978-3-946292-26-5 doi: 10.3372 / epolist2018 .