Western Apaches

Reservations of the Western Apaches and neighboring tribes in the American Southwest

The Western Apaches are the westernmost and largest tribal group of the Apaches in east-central Arizona in the southwestern United States , their four regional groups - the White Mountain Apache ( Dzil Łigai Si'án Ndee - people of the White Mountains), Cibecue Apache ( Dishchíí Bikoh - people of red Canyon), the San Carlos Apache ( Tsék'áádn - Metate -Volk) and the Tonto Apache or Dilzhę'é / Dilzhe'e Apache (people with high, clear voices) - are also counted culturally to the Western Apache.

Other scientists and anthropologists use Western Apache to designate all the Apache tribes living in Arizona west of the Rio Grande (except the Diné (Navajo) ) and thus include the Apache Mansos (Tame Apache) near the San Xavier del Bac mission south of Tucson and the Chokonen, Bedonkohe and Nednhi bands of the Chiricahua . Today, however, the latter are generally culturally counted among the Eastern Apache (see list of Apache tribes ).

Tribal area

The Western Apache inhabited a vast mountainous area of about 90,000 square miles (233,100 km²), the parts of the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sonoran Deserts in the extreme south and the mountains of the Basin and Range Province south of the Mogollon Rim and the adjoining - of the north desert-like plateaus , mesas and canyons - encompassed the Colorado Plateau as far as the San Francisco Mountains north of today's Flagstaff ; Their tribal area was not only characterized by drought, but was also suitable thanks to the shady high forests in the mountains and the well-irrigated valleys and canyons along the upper reaches of the Verde River in the northeast and the Little Colorado River in the east and along the Salt River in the southwest and on both sides of the Gila River in the south also for agriculture . The elevations range from approx. 600 m to approx. 3,900 m above sea level and temperatures fluctuate between approx. −17 ° C in winter to well over 38 ° C in summer.

language

Their language, the Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati'), is divided into four dialect variants according to the regional groups and, together with the Navajo (Diné bizaad) and the Mescalero-Chiricahua (Ndee Bizaa), belongs to the western branch of the Southathapaskan Apache languages of the Athapaskan language from the Na Dené language family .

Since the Tonto Apache often formed bilingual bands together with Wi: pukba / Wipukepa and Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya of the Yavapai - and thus both Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati') and Yavapai , also called highland Yuma / Northern Pai, spoke - the Tonto (Dilzhę́'é) dialect had a strong Yavapai accent and therefore, in contrast to the other variants of the Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati'), has a distinctive and for other Apache-sounding speech melody that is often also known as "Singsang". The Tonto (Dilzhę́'é) dialect is closest to the Navajo of all Apache languages.

Today about 1,000 people still speak Tonto or Dilzhę́'é (as of 2007), whereby the Northern Tonto idiom is spoken in two reservations shared with Yavapai (the Yavapai-Apache Nation Indian Reservation (formerly Camp Verde) and Yavapai-Prescott Indian Reservation) and the Southern Tonto idiom in the Tonto Apache Reservation as well as in the Fort McDowell Indian Reservation, which is also shared with Yavapai, and in two reservations dominated by other tribes of the Western Apache (the San Carlos Apache and Fort Apache Indian Reservation). Although there are descendants of Northern Tonto Apache in the San Carlos and Fort Apache Indian Reservations, there are no speakers of the Northern Tonto idiom among them today.

Today there are around 14,000 - but mostly passive - speakers of the Western Apache, with around 7,000 speakers of the White Mountain and Cibecue dialect (on the Fort Apache Reservation) and around 6,000 speakers of the San Carlos and Cibecue dialect (on the San Carlos Indian Apache Reservation) there (as of 2007).

Naming

Origin of the name Apache

The tribal name commonly used today as Apache was adopted from Spanish in English (and later in other languages); however, the origin of the name is uncertain and controversial.

The most widely accepted doctrine today is that the word comes from the Shiwi'ma , the language of the Zuni (A: shiwi) , a Pueblo people who called the enemy Southern Athapasques - especially the Navajo - advancing from the north to the south-west A: bachu / ʔa · paču (singular: Bachu / Paču - enemy, stranger). Another possibility is that the enemy Quechan (Yuma) called the allied Yavapai and Apache as E-patch (fighting men or those who fight) or because of the typical war paint of the Yavapai as Apatieh ( raccoon ). However, the name could also come from two words of the Yavapai - their language, like that of the Quechan is one of the Cochimí-Yuma languages -: ʔpačə (enemy) or Abaja (the people), the self-name of the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya or Southeastern Yavapai the Fort McDowell reservation.

The first known written mention of the tribal name Apache in Spanish was made by Juan de Oñate in 1598; therefore the origin from the language of the Zuñi and Yavapai is still controversial, as Oñate knew the name and had it written down before he first met these two peoples during the Second Oñate Expedition in 1604.

Another - but not very convincing - origin could come directly from Spanish: mapache (raccoon) or apachurrar (smash, crush), which could refer to the fighting technique with war clubs , which is popular with the Apache.

First, the Spaniards called Apachu de Nabajo (Navajo) in the 1620s, the southern Athapasques in the Chama region east of the San Juan River ; however, since the 1640s they began to differentiate between the actual Navajo and the rest of the Apache; so that soon the addition de Nabajo was dropped and the word Apache was used to designate the Southern Athapasques, which did not develop into the Navajo (Diné) .

In the past, Wi: pukba / Wipukepa (Northeastern Yavapai) were usually referred to as Mohave-Apache (Apache-Mojave) and together with the Guwevkabaya / Kwevkepaya (Southeastern Yavapai) as Tonto Apache or Tonto for short , as they are often in bilingual bands with Tonto and San Carlos Apache lived together and, in addition to the language, had also adopted a lot of Apache culture. The Ɖo: lkabaya / Tolkepaya (Western Yavapai) were called Yuma-Apache (Apache-Yuma) together with the Hualapai (Walapai) and Havasupai . Historically and in older literature, the Yavapai be mostly as Apache Mohave (Apache Mojave), Yavapai-Apache easy or as Apache called because the word Apache often in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States to refer to hostile, warlike, predatory Indians needed without any linguistic, ethnic or cultural differentiation. For example, Mohave (Mojave) and even Comanche were also formerly known as Apache.

Origin of the name Tonto

Since the Tonto Apache were mostly bilingual and spoke both Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati') and Yavapai (highland Yuma / Northern Pai), their dialect has a strong, audible Yavapai accent and therefore has a strong, audible Yavapai accent , in contrast to the other variants of the Western Apache (Ndee biyati '/ Nnee biyati') a distinctive and for other Apache-sounding speech melody that is often referred to as singsong . Therefore, the Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache along with their Yavapai relatives were called by other Western Apache as Dilzhę́'é (literally: people with high, bright voices). The related but hostile Navajo (Diné) also referred to both - Tonto Apache and Yavapai - as Dilzhʼíʼ dinéʼiʼ and thus explicitly differentiated them from the other groups of the Western Apache, whom they called Dziłghą́ʼiʼ (People of the Mountain Peaks).

Presumably because of their heavy accent, the Tonto Apache, San Carlos Apache and Yavapai (since they were also bilingual and spoke their mother tongue with a heavy Apache accent) were both named by the Chiricahua Apache as Ben-et-dine or binii? E'dine as also referred to as Bini 'Adinii or Bínii édinénde (people without understanding, savage or crazy people or those who are not understood) by the Mescalero Apache, who are closely related to these linguistic and culturally related .

Since most of the local groups of the Tonto Apache, just like their Yavapai relatives, practiced little or no agriculture compared to the semi-nomadic Western Apache, but lived mostly as hunters and gatherers in inaccessible areas that were remote from most trade routes, Tonto Apache and Yavapai became by these also referred to as Koun'Nde or Go'hn (wild, rough people). The Spaniards and later the Americans probably adopted this designation and therefore called the two allied tribes (Tonto Apache and Yavapai) Tonto (stupid, wild).

The Tonto Apache, like the other Western Apache, called themselves neither Apache nor Tonto, but simply Indee, Ndee, Nndee (people). Due to their different dialect, the Pinaleño / Pinal and Arivaipa / Aravaipa bands of the San Carlos Apache group call themselves Innee or Nnēē .

However, the name Dilzhę́'é was by no means disrespectful or humiliating on the part of the Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache, they often called themselves Dilzhę́'é to differentiate themselves from other Western Apache. One reason for this could be that there is also another explanation for the meaning of the name, which literally means fast-footed or sure-footed . Even the Western Apache in no way felt the Chiricahua-Mescalero naming as degrading or disparaging and also called themselves Ben-et-dine (people without understanding).

Historical and other names

The Spaniards and Mexicans in particular used to condescently call the mighty White Mountain Apache Coyoteros or Coyotero Apaches ( coyote eaters , as they often ate coyotes or their dogs in times of need) and the Western Apache with the often allied Yavapai Garroteros (club men, after the Apache popular fighting technique with war clubs) or as Gileños / Apaches de Gila (a collective term for all Apache and non-Apache groups, those west of the Rio Grande (in southeastern Arizona and west of New Mexico) and along the Gila River or the Gila Mountains However, some of the so-called Gila Apache belonged to the Bedonkohe Band and the Copper Mines local group of the Chihenne Band of the Chiricahua Apache . After 1722, however, the Spaniards only used the Gileños to refer to today's White Mountain Apache and Akimel O'Odham (Pima) as Gileños ).

The Americans first referred to the Mimbres / Mimbreño local group of the Chihenne Band of the Chiricahua Apache as Gileños or Gila Apaches . However, they later expanded the term to include the White Mountain Apache, Tonto Apache, Pinaleño / Pinal Apache and Arivaipa / Aravaipa bands of the San Carlos Apache, as well as the Bedonkohe band known as Mogollon (es) and the Mimbres / Mimbreño local group of the Chihenne Band as well as the Chokonen and Chihuicahui local groups of the Chokonen Band of the Chiricahua; the Yavapai , related and allied with the Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache, were therefore often referred to simply as the Yabipais Gileños .

The O'Odham (Upper Pima) , suffering from the raids of the allied Yavapai and Western Apache , all called the Northern Pai (Yavapai, Hualapai and Havasupai) as well as the Apache and Opata simply Ohp or O'Ob (enemies).

The Seri (Comcaac) denotes all Apache in Seri (Cmiique Iitom) , an isolated language, as Hapatsoj (Singular: Hapats ).

history

Before the arrival of the whites, they lived mainly as hunters and gatherers , but also worked intensively on small fields in the mountains, and agriculture was probably taught to them by the Pueblo peoples. There were also raids against their Indian neighbors, such as the Pueblo, Upper and Lower Pima , Yavapai , Opata , Tarahumara , Yaqui and Spaniards (and later Mexicans). The raids by the Western Apache stretched over an area from the Colorado River in western Arizona, to the Zuni and Hopi in the north, to far south of the Spanish and then Mexican states ( Sonora , Chihuahua , Sinaloa , Durango ).

They had a very tense relationship with the Diné in the north, which often turned into open hostility. They also lived in an uncertain peace with their southern and eastern neighbors, the Chiricahua groups (Bedonkohe, Chihenne, Chokonen and Nednhi) , which also belonged to the Apaches , which was marred by mutual distrust and raids. White Mountain and Pinaleno, Cibecue and Tonto even fought each other.

Despite the frequent hostility and raids of the Apaches, there were also peaceful relationships with their Indian and white neighbors. Especially the Diné (in Apache Yúdaha - 'Live Far Up') and the Zuñi (in Apache: Nastizhé or Nastizhé`nde - those with black- colored eyebrows) counted in addition to the eastern Pueblo and the Hopi (in Apache Tséká`kiné - people, who lives in stone houses) u the most important trading partners of the Western Apaches.

The Apaches sold stolen cattle (cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, mules), horses and collected acorns, mescal, seeds, fruits, wild plants, berries and roasted agave hearts. They also offered furs, turkey breast feathers, water bottles and baskets. In return, they received valuable Navajo and Zuni blankets, muskets, powder, iron farm implements, calico (simple cotton fabrics that were printed with small, often floral, all-over patterns), knives, other important implements as well as corn, beans and later wheat . For example, a stolen horse was worth at least five Navajo blankets in exchange.

The Western Apaches also sold stolen cattle, horses and mules to white, Spanish, Mexican and later American and Indian traders in the large markets in Chihuahua , Santa Fe (New Mexico) and Taos and received weapons, ammunition, knives, and iron implements as well Dress. Later, Americans also moved to Cedar Creek and Tł`ohk`agai ( Fort Apache ) in the so-called Apacheria to do trade.

After their defeat by General George Crook in 1875, the last groups of the Pinaleño did not submit until 1883, the various groups were relocated to the San Carlos Reservation and the White Mountain Reservation . Because of their hostility to the Chiricahua and Tonto groups, the Western Apache volunteered to serve as army scouts in the fight against their Indian neighbors. The Chiricahua and Tonto, as well as the Yavapai allied with them , then carried out raids on the reservations of the Western Apache in order to rob women and boys.

Western Apache tribes and groups

White Mountain Apache , own name: Dzil Łigai Si'án Ndee - people of the White Mountains, Spanish Sierra Blanca Apaches - Apache of the white mountains, lived between the Pinaleno Mountains in the south and the White Mountains in the north along the White , Black , Salt and Gila River , eastern and at the same time the largest and most powerful tribal group of the Western Apache

Western White Mountain Apache, Łįįnábáha , Laan Baaha or Łįįnábáha dinéʼiʼ - Many Go to War People, often referred to as Coyoteros or Coyotero Apache , lived between the Eastern White Mountain Apache and the Cibecue Apache in the northwest and San Carlos Apache in the southwest.
Eastern White Mountain Apache, Dził Ghą́ʼ or Dzil Ghaa a - On Top of Mountains People.
- Dzil Nchaa Si An, Big Seated Mountain People - people of Mount Graham

Cibecue Apache , Spanish derivative of Dishchíí Bikoh - people of the red canyon, lived from the Salt River in the south to well above the Mogollon Rim in the north, the western border was formed by the Mazatzal Mountains , home of the southern Tonto, northern tribal group.

Canyon Creek, Gołkizhn - Spotted on Top People, lived along Canyon Creek , a tributary of the Salt River, in the Mogollon Rim area , western group of the Cibecue Apache.
Carrizo, Tłʼohkʼadigain , Tłʼohkʼadigain Bikoh Indee - Canyon of the Row of White Canes People, lived along Carrizo Creek, a tributary of the Salt River, eastern group of the Cibecue Apache.
Cibecue, Dziłghą́ʼé , Dził Tʼaadn or Dził Tʼaadnji - Base of Mountain People / Side of Mountain People, lived along the Cibecue Creek, a tributary of the Salt River, middle group of the Cibecue Apache.

San Carlos Apache , Tsékʼáádn - Metate People, lived near Tucson in the Santa Catalina Mountains on both sides of the San Pedro River northwards across the Gila River to the Salt River.

Apache Peaks, Nadah Dogalniné - Spoiled Mescal People, Tasteless Mescal People, also known as Bichi Lehe Nnee - Fled to the mountains People, lived northwest of Globe between the Salt River and the Apache Peaks along the Seven Milk Wash , eastward to Ishįį ( Salt) on the Salt River and between the mouths of Cibicue Creek and Canyon Creek.

San Carlos, Tsékʼáádn , Tsandee Dotʼán - It is Placed Alone beside the Fire People, often simply referred to as Tsékʼáádn - 'Metate People' or the actual San Carlos , sometimes also called Tiis Zhaazhe Bikoh - Small cottonwood canyon people, lived along the San Carlos River, a tributary of the Gila River.

Pinaleño / Pinal Apache, T'iisibaan , T`iis Tsebán or Tiis Ebah Nnee - Gray Cottonwoods in the Rocks People, named after Tiis Tsebá , a farm area along Pinal Creek and the trees at the confluence with the San Pedro River. They lived in the west in the Mescal Mountains and the northern and eastern Pinaleno Mountains, also Pinal Mountains , Dzi £ Nnilchí 'Diyiléé - pine-burdened mountain, as far as the northern Apache Peaks in the east, in the north beyond the Salt River and in the southeast up to to the Gila River, hunted and lived together in bilingual groups with their Hwaalkamvepaya - allies of the Guwevkabaya-Yavapai , as well as with the Arivaipa Apache in the Dripping Springs Mountains and the western Pinaleno Mountains in the southwest. Most of them lived north of the Arivaipa.

Arivaipa, Aravaipa, in the language of the Pima: cowards', women, were called by the Apaches Tsé hiné , Tséjìné or Tsee Zhinnee - Dark Rocks People or Black Rocks People, derived from the black rocks of the Galiuro Mountains and the Aravaipa Canyon from the Santa Teresa Mountains in the northwest, including Mount Turnball, the southern Apache Peaks south in the Tortilla Mountains to the northeast Santa Catalina Mountains and Rincon Mountains in the southwest, and from the northwest south of the Gila River to the Galiuro Mountains in the southeast, as well as in the Arivaipa Canyon, called Arapa , and on both
sides of the San Pedro River Valley, called Sambeda , hunted and camped together in bilingual groups with their Hwaalkamvepaya allies of the Guwevkabaya-Yavapai and with the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache in the Dripping Springs Mountains and the western Pinaleno Mountains in the northwest, lived mostly south of the Pinaleño / Pinal Apache.
- Tséjiné, Tsé hiné or Tsee Zhinnee - Dark Rocks People or Black Rocks People, the most important clan of the Arivaipa, therefore mostly used as a name for the whole group.
- Tsé Binest`i`é, rock encircling people.
- Dzil Dlaazhe, also Mount Turnbull Apache , bilingual Kwevekapaya Apache group.

Tonto Apache , lived from the Salt River and the Mazatzal Mountains in the south, the Tonto Basin and along the upper reaches of the Verde River in the San Francisco Peaks northwards to today's Flagstaff ,

Northern Tonto , lived along the upper reaches of the Verde River and northward to the San Francisco Mountains north of Flagstaff .
- Bald Mountain, Dasziné Dasdaayé Indee - Porcupine Sitting Above People, lived mostly around Bald Mountain or Squaw Peak, in the western Verde River Valley, southwest of Camp Verde. They lived exclusively from hunting and collecting roots, herbs and plants, and formed a bilingual (bilingual) group with the Wi: pukba (Wipukepa or Northeastern Yavapai).
- Fossil Creek, Tú Dotłʼizh Indee - Blue Green Water People, had some small plantings along Fossil Creek. Tu Do Cliz - Blue Green Water Canyon / Fossil Creek, Clear Creek and at one point on the Verde River, below the mouth of Deer Creek, hunted and collected west of the Verde River, in the northwest to the Oak Creek-Tonto area and in the northeast up to Apache Maid Mountain, formed a bilingual group with the Matkitwawipa group of the Wi: pukba (Wipukepa or Northeastern Yavapai).
- Mormon Lake, Dotłʼizhi HaʼitʼIndee - Turquoise Road Coming Up People, lived east of Mormon Lake near Anderson's Canyon, roamed as far as the southern San Francisco Mountains, Elden Mountain near Flagstaff, around Mormon, Mary's, Stoneman's and Hay Lakes as well as in Anderson and Padre Canyon, as they were always exposed to attacks from the enemy Navajo (Diné) in the north and east, they lived exclusively as gatherers and hunters and were the only group of the Tonto Apache that consisted only of Apache.
- Oak Creek, Tsé Hichii Indee - Horizontal Red Rock People, lived near present-day Sedona, along Oak Creek, Dry Beaver Creek, Wet Beaver Creek and south to the west bank of the Verde River, between Altnan and West Clear Creek, east to Stoneman's and Mary's Lakes and northwards to Roger's Lake and Flagstaff, formed a bilingual group with the Wiipukepaya group of the Wi: pukba (Wipukepa or Northeastern Yavapai).
Southern Tonto , lived in the Tonto Basin, northward from the Salt River in the south and across the East Verde River and in the Sierra Ancha , Bradshaw Mountains and Mazatzal Mountains .
- Mazatzal, Tsé Nołtłʼizhn - 'Rocks in a Line of Greenness People', lived mostly in the eastern Mazatzal Mountains, formed a bilingual group with the Hakayopa and Hichapulvapa local groups of the Wiikchasapaya (Wikedjasapa) group of the Guwevkabaya (Kwevkepaya or Southeastern Yavapeai).
- Dilzhę́'é small group, Dil Zhe`é , most important small group.
- another five small groups

All other five small groups were generally referred to as Dilzhę́'é, some Dilzhę́'é in the Sierra Ancha formed the bilingual group called Matkawatapa with members of the Walkamepa group of the Guwevkabaya (Kwevkepaya or Southeastern Yavapai) . Occasionally, groups of the Yavapai , especially the Wipukepa and Kwevkepaya , lived with the Tonto-Apache in bilingual rancherias and could not be distinguished from the Apache except by the mother tongue of strangers, and so Apache and Yavapai were often referred to as Tonto. So it is not always easy to find out whether it is exclusively Yavapai or Apache, or these mixed bands . The Wipukepa and Kwevkepaya were therefore often incorrectly referred to as Apache Mohave , Yavapai Apache and / or Yuma Apache because of their kinship and cultural closeness to the Tonto Apaches . As Yuma Apache is also called the Tolkepaya , the southwestern group of the Yavapai, as well as also to the Highland Yuma counting Hualapai ( 'Hualapai').

Demographics

With around 4,500 to 5,000 members, the Western Apaches were the largest and most populous group among the Apaches, which together never numbered more than 15,000, whereby it must be borne in mind that only 25% of these were men and the rest women (35%) and Children (40%). Here again the approx. 1,500 White Mountain Apache were the largest and with approx. 375 warriors the most powerful group of the Western Apache, while with approx. 1,000 members (approx. 250 warriors) the Cibecue Apache represented the second largest group. The San Carlos Apache and Southern Tonto Apache each had 900 tribal members (each with 225 warriors), so that the approximately 800 members of the Northern Tonto Apache-Yavapai (including approximately 450 Apache with approximately 110 warriors) formed the smallest group.

Todays situation

Today there are five federally recognized tribes of the Western Apache that are officially recognized as a tribe by the United States government at the federal level. The Yavapai-Apache Nation and the Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation form two of the five Apache tribes in Arizona and two of the three federally recognized Yavapai tribes in Arizona .

White Mountain Apache Tribe
San Carlos Apache Tribe
Tonto Apache Tribe

The Tonto Apache Reservation was set up in 1972 with just 344,000 m² (85 acres) in the middle of the Tonto National Forest , which was expanded in 2010 by a further 1,181,683 m² (292 acres), so that it now covers approx. 1.5 km² . The reservation is inhabited by 100 of the approx. 140 tribe members and borders south of the city of Payson (in Apache: Te-go-suk - 'place of yellow water') in the northwest of Gila County , approx. 153 km northeast of Phoenix and 160 km southeast of Flagstaff .

The reservation is surrounded by many large mountain ranges, the Mazatzal Mountains in the west, the Sierra Ancha Mountains in the south and the Mogollon Rim in the north, with altitudes from 1,200 m to around 2,100 m.

The Tonto Apache now operate the Mazatzal Hotel & Casino , south of Payson, on Highway 87, with a view of the Mazatzal Mountains and the Mogollon Rim (English pronunciation: MUG-ee'ahn).

The Tonto Apache are direct descendants of the Northern Tonto of the Dilzhe'e Apache who once lived in the Payson area . During the first reservation period they were placed in the large Rio Verde reservation, near Fort Verde , which had been established in 1871 for the Northern Tonto Apache and Wi: pukba (Wipukepa) or Northeastern Yavapai - however, it was dissolved in 1875 and the tribes were forced into Relocate the San Carlos Reservation . Some Northern Tonto Apache were gradually returning to Payson after 20 years of exile, but white settlers had already occupied a lot of tribal land. However, the majority of the Northern Tonto Apache had decided to return to the Camp Verde Reservation along with their relatives and allies, the Yavapai , and now form the Yavapai-Apache Nation .

Yavapai-Apache Nation

After the Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache ( Tonto Apache ) were forced to move into the approximately 900 km² Camp Verde reservation along the Verde River near Camp Verde in 1871, many children and died during the first three years (1871–1873) Old people due to poor water and insufficient supply of healthy and sufficient food. When the Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache set up irrigation systems (including an approximately 8 km long trench), it worked so well that it was now possible to bring in sufficient harvests to be relatively self-sufficient. But contracted entrepreneurs who worked with the government to ensure the supply of the reservations, saw their existence threatened by this and demanded that the reservation be canceled. Thereupon, on February 27, 1875, 1,476 Indians were forced to move over snow-capped mountains and frozen rivers approx. 290 km south to the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, with many elderly, women and children perishing in the snow and cold. During the march, due to hunger and exertion, violent tensions arose between Ɖo: lkabaya (Tolkepaya), Yavbe '(Yavapé) and Wi: pukba (Wipukepa) on the one hand and the Dilzhe'e Apache and their guwevkabaya (Kwevkepaya) ) and Wi: pukba (Wipukepa) allies, on the other hand. After two weeks, 1,361 Yavapai and Tonto Apache arrived in San Carlos, 25 babies were born on the way and around 140 perished.

In the early 1900s, the Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache returned to their old homeland, and in 1910 the 40 acres (0.16 km²) Camp Verde Indian Reservation was opened, as well as the separate 248 in the following decade acres (approx. 1.00 km²) Middle Verde Indian Reservation. These two were merged in 1937 to form today's, approximately 665 acres (approximately 2.70 km²), Yavapai-Apache Nation Indian Reservation , and consists of four disconnected settlements in the Verde Valley in eastern Yavapai County - Clarkdale , Middle Verde , Rimrock as well as Camp Verde , the administrative center and main town, which with 576 acres (approx. 2.33 km²) covers almost 90% of the reserve. The 2000 census found a reservation population of 743 people, of whom 512 lived in Camp Verde, 218 in Clarkdale, and only 13 in the unincorporated settlement of Lake Montezuma .

The base of the Yavapai-Apache Nation's income is the Cliff Castle Casino and tourism, thanks to many preserved historical sites, such as Slide Rock State Park , Sedona Red Rock Country , Tuzigoot National Monument and Montezuma Castle National Monument . The Yavapai-Apache Nation is an amalgamation of two historically different tribes, both of which lived on the Upper Verde River. The Northern Tonto Apache, the Dilzhe'e Apache , used the land in the northeast, east and south, while the Wi: pukba (Wipukepa) (also Northeastern Yavapai ) and Yavbe '(Yavapé) (also Northwestern Yavapai ) in the northwest, west and south lived. Their territories overlapped along the Upper Verde River, where they often lived together in bilingual groups. Today the Apache culture prevails.

Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation

The reservation of the Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation , about 35 miles northeast of Phoenix in Maricopa County , was established by Theodore Roosevelt in 1903 and originally comprised 40 sqm (about 103 km²), but in 1910 the Office of Indian Affairs tried to relocate the residents to open the area and water rights to outsiders - but in vain. The reservation currently covers 24,680 acres (approx. 100 km²) and is inhabited by approx. 600 of the 950 tribe members.

The Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation has several tourism businesses, including Fort McDowell Casino, Fort McDowell Adventures (a Western-themed outdoor venue), Eagle's Nest RV Park, WeKoPa Golf Club, Fort McDowell Farms, Yavapai Materials, Radisson Poco Diablo Resort in Sedona and the Radisson Fort McDowell Resort and Conference Center.

Fort McDowell is also the birthplace of one of the first advocates for indigenous human rights, Dr. Carlos Montezuma (Wassaja) (1866-1923). As a child, Wassaja was kidnapped by Akimel O'Odham and sold to an Italian photographer who taught him medicine in Chicago, and eventually graduated with a doctorate in medicine. Later on, Wassaja, better known as Dr. Carlos Montezuma, for the rights of Native Americans, for the right to become citizens of the United States. He also became one of the leading figures in helping the Yavapai regain their tribal lands and died of tuberculosis on the reservation .

The Guwevkabaya (Kwevikopaya or Kwevkepaya) (also Southeastern Yavapai ) of the Fort McDowell Reservation call themselves Abaja - 'The People', therefore some anthropologists and linguists suspect that the name Apache for the various Athapaskan-speaking Apaches is derived from the self-name of the Guwevkabaya . The Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation consists of two different tribes, the Guwevkabaya (Kwevikopaya) -Yavapai and the Dilzhe'e Apache or Southern Tonto Apache , who often married with each other, formed bilingual groups and were allies against hostile tribes and settlers.

literature

Culture:

Keith H. Basso: Western Apache witchcraft . (= Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona. No. 15). University of Arizona Press, Tucson 1969.
Keith H. Basso: The Cibecue Apache . (= Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology ). Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York 1970, ISBN 0-03-083171-7 .
Keith H. Basso: Portraits of "the whiteman": Linguistic play and Cultural symbols among the Western Apache. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1979, ISBN 0-521-29593-9 .
Keith H. Basso: Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque 1996, ISBN 0-8263-1724-3 .
Grenville Goodwin: Myth and tales of the White Mountain Apache . New York 1939. (Reprint: (= Memoirs of the American Folk-Lore Society. Vol. 33). Univ. Of Arizona Press, Tucson 1994, ISBN 0-8165-1451-8 )
Grenville Goodwin: The social organization of the Western Apache. In: Janice T. Goodwin (Ed.): The University of Chicago publications in anthropology: Ethnological series. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1942. (Reprint: University of Arizona Press, Tucson 1969)
Grenville Goodwin: Western Apache raiding and warfare. Edited by Keith H. Basso. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York 1971, ISBN 0-8165-0297-8 .
Grenville Goodwin, Morris E. Opler: Grenville Goodwin among the Western Apache: Letters from the field. University of Arizona Press, Tucson 1973, ISBN 0-8165-0417-2 .
Steve Gordon, Deborah Martin, Edgar Perry: Ancient power [Compact Disc Recording]. Sequoia Records, Topanga, CA 1998.
Charles R. Kaut: The Western Apache clan system: Its origins and development . (= University of New Mexico publications in anthropology. No. 9). University of New Mexico, Albuquerque 1957.
Helen H. Roberts: Basketry of the San Carlos Apache . (= Anthropology papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 31, Part. 2). The American Museum of Natural History, New York City 1929.

Language:

Keith H. Basso: Portraits of "the whiteman": Linguistic play and cultural symbols among the Western Apache. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1979, ISBN 0-521-29593-9 .
Keith H. Basso: Western Apache language and culture: Essays in linguistic anthropology. University of Arizona Press, Tucson 1990, ISBN 0-8165-1323-6 .
Keith H. Basso: Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque 1996, ISBN 0-8263-1724-3 .
John G. Bourke, Carole J. Condie: Vocabulary of the Apache or 'Indé language of Arizona and New Mexico . (= Occasional publications in anthropology: Linguistic series. No. 7). Museum of Anthropology, University of Northern Colorado, Greenley, CO 1980.
Dorothy Bray, White Mountain Apache Tribe: Western Apache-English dictionary: A community-generated bilingual dictionary. Bilingual Press, Tempe, AZ 1998, ISBN 0-927534-79-7 .
Pliny E. Goddard: Myths and tales from the San Carlos Apache . (= Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 24, Part 1). The American Museum of Natural History, New York 1918.
Pliny E. Goddard: Myths and tales from the White Mountain Apache . (= Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 24, Part 2). The American Museum of Natural History, New York 1919.
Pliny E. Goddard: San Carlos Apache texts . (= Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 24, Part 3). The American Museum of Natural History, New York 1919.
Pliny E. Goddard: White Mountain Apache texts . (= Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 24, Part 4). The American Museum of Natural History, New York 1920.
Matthew Gordon, Brian Potter, John Dawson, Willem de Reuse, Peter Ladefoged: Phonetic structures of Western Apache. In: International Journal of American Linguistics. 67 (4), 2001, pp. 415-481.
Edgar Perry: Western Apache dictionary. White Mountain Apache Culture Center, Fort Apache, AZ 1972.
Willem J. de Reuse: A practical grammar of the San Carlos Apache language. 2006, ISBN 3-89586-861-2 .

Individual evidence

^ Keith H. Basso: Western Apache Raiding and Warfare. 2015, ISBN 978-0-8165-0297-4 , p. 13.

^ Tonto Apache and its position within Apachean

↑ Etymology - Also, What About 'Tonto'?

↑ Shadows at Dawn - The Peoples - Nnēē / Apache / 'O: b

↑ Fort Apache History

^ Ian W. Record: Big Sycamore Stands Alone: The Western Apaches, Aravaipa, and the Struggle for Place. University of Oklahoma Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-8061-3972-2 .

^ Yavapai and Nde Apache

^ The Pinal Mountains

↑ 1850 map showing Apache seasonal migrations in and around the San Pedro River Valley, located in the Aravaipa and Pinal Band territories