Smutsia

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Smutsia
Steppe pangolin (Smutsia temminckii)

Steppe pangolin ( Smutsia temminckii )

Systematics
Subclass : Higher mammals (Eutheria)
Superordinate : Laurasiatheria
Order : Pholidota
Family : Pangolins (Manidae)
Subfamily : Smutsiinae
Genre : Smutsia
Scientific name of the  subfamily
Smutsiinae
Gray , 1873
Scientific name of the  genus
Smutsia
Gray , 1865

Smutsia is a genus from the family of dandruff animals (Manidae). The steppe pangolin and the giant pangolin and thus the two ground-dwelling pangolins of Africa are assigned to her. The two species inhabit large parts of Africa from the western part of the continent to the eastern to the southern. The main habitat includes dense forests and open landscapes. They are robustly built and externally characterized by the distinctive scales. The animals live solitary and feed mainly on state-forming insects, which they look for on the ground with the help of their sense of smell. The main activity times are at night. Intensive hunting by humans, who use the pangolins as a food resource and in local medicinal customs, resulted in a sharp decline in populations. In addition, international trade has a negative impact on the populations of the ground-dwelling African pangolins. Both species are endangered in their existence.

features

Giant pangolin ( smutsia gigantea )

With the steppe pangolin ( Smutsia temminckii ) and the giant pangolin ( Smutsia gigantea ), the genus Smutsia represents the two larger representatives of the pangolins of Africa. Their head-torso length varies from 30 to 81 cm, the tail becomes 37 to 70 cm long. Overall, the tail is shorter than the rest of the body and in proportion significantly shorter than that of the tree-living pangolins of the genus Phataginus . The body weight varies from 3 to 35 kg. The body is strongly built. As with other pangolins, the scale dress also covers the head, the back and the sides of the trunk, the tail and the outer sides of the limbs, unlike the phataginus , it extends here to the lower sections of the front and rear legs. Compared to the tree-climbing species, the scales are massive and very large, but, like these, have three backward-pointing tips that are not always recognizable due to wear and tear with age. They are arranged in transverse rows on the body. A single row of scales extends across the center line of the back, which, as in the representatives of Phataginus , but deviating from the Asiatic forms, breaks off in front of the tip of the tail and is replaced by a double row of scales. The tip of the tail is completely covered with scales, while the arboreal pangolins have a pad of touch on the underside. On the underside of the body and on the legs of the representatives of the genus Smutsia, a short-haired fur is formed, which, however, becomes longer in the Phataginus forms. In contrast to the Asian pangolins, the African pangolins do not grow hair between the scales. The head has a conical shape and has small eyes. As in all African species, the bulges in the ears are significantly reduced, but in the Asian species they are prominent. The limbs are short and sturdy; the front ones are usually much shorter than the rear ones. They each end in five rays with strong claws that are noticeably shorter on the feet than on the hands. The three middle claws of the front feet show clear extensions and function as grave claws.

distribution and habitat

The distribution area of Smutsia covers large parts of the African continent from West to Central and East to South Africa . Compared to the arboreal pangolins, the area of ​​the ground-dwelling pangolins is therefore much broader overall. Both open landscapes and closed forests serve as living space. The steppe pangolin lives mainly in savannahs and grasslands interspersed with bush vegetation from northeast to southern Africa, in the dense tropical rainforests and gallery forests of Central and West Africa it is replaced by the giant pangolin. The population density in both species is rather low.

Way of life

Territorial behavior

Steppe pangolin, historic photo from what is now Namibia, was made between 1906 and 1918

The representatives of Smutsia live solitary and are largely nocturnal and mostly ground dwelling. There they often move on four feet, the front feet are set down with the outer edge so that the claws are not worn. The rear legs touch the ground with the entire sole. Sometimes the animals only walk on their hind legs, which is much more common in the steppe pangolin. The tail is noticeably less mobile than that of the arboreal pangolins, which means that those living on the ground are only able to climb to a limited extent. The animals maintain activity rooms in which they stay for a longer period of time, usually a few years. There are several underground structures in the action areas as places of retreat. The giant pangolin is an excellent grave with its extremely strong front legs and often builds its own burrows. The steppe pangolin, on the other hand, has shorter and less powerful arms and is therefore less well equipped for digging. Therefore, to rest, it mainly retreats to shelters that were dug by other ground graves. The grazing areas are marked with scents. As a result, the main communication takes place via the very good sense of smell .

nutrition

Both the steppe and the giant pangolin are strong nutrition specialists, whose diet consists almost exclusively of state-forming insects such as ants and termites . Both types can therefore be regarded as strictly myrmecophagus . The food is searched for on the ground, using the fine sense of smell. The animals open the burrows of the insects with the strong claws of the front feet, the prey is picked up with the long and sticky tongue. While eating, a nest is not completely destroyed, but rather the individual animals return to it several nights in a row. The representatives of the genus Smutsia sometimes also cover longer distances for foraging .

Reproduction

Reproduction is not seasonally restricted. The gestation period is given as three to five months. As a rule, a single young animal is born, which is relatively well developed with open eyes and a trained, but still soft scale armor. In contrast to the adult animals, it also has a very agile tail and a powerful clasp reflex. It spends the beginning time on the back or the root of the tail of the mother animal. After one to three months, the young start to eat solid food. Since the mother animal is ready to receive again relatively quickly after the birth, it can still give birth to a new one while the one young is being raised. With the birth of the new young animal, the older one leaves the mother animal. Life expectancy in the wild is unknown.

Systematics

Internal systematics of the Manidae according to Gaubert et al. 2018
  Manidae  

 Manis 


   
  Smutsia  

 Smutsia gigantea


   

 Smutsia temminckii



   

 Phataginus 




Template: Klade / Maintenance / Style
John Edward Gray

Smutsia is a genus from the family of the shed animals (Manidae) and includes the bottom-dwelling animals shed Africa. It is currently the only member of the Smutsiinae subfamily. The tree-dwelling pangolins of Africa, however, belong to the subfamily of the Phatagininae with the genus Phataginus . Both lines are in a sister group relationship to one another. According to molecular genetic analyzes, their separation dates back to the transition from the Oligocene to the Miocene around 22.9 million years ago. The Asian representatives of the pangolins are represented by the genus Manis and the subfamily of the Maninae ; they form a more distant kinship group that had already separated from the common line with the African pangolins in the course of the Eocene 46.9 to 37.9 million years ago. The pangolins themselves are currently the only member of the order of the Pholidota, which is thus monotypical . They are largely related to carnivores , but this relationship was only recognized through genetic research.

In addition to the relationship scheme presented here, there are also other suggestions for structuring pangolins. Sometimes the African representatives are also listed within the genus Manis . In this case Phataginus and Smutsia are given the rank of subgenera. On the other hand, some researchers are of the opinion that pangolins should be more differentiated. Accordingly, Smutsia also includes the ground-dwelling pangolins of Africa, but another genus is separated from the genus Phataginus with Uromanis . In the former is the white-bellied pangolin , in the latter the long-tailed pangolin . Anatomical and phylogenetic studies show that the Asiatic pangolins form a monophyletic , self-contained group and can thus be separated from the African. The African pangolins, on the other hand, appear more heterogeneous, although the two arboreal pangolins of Africa are clearly close together, which does not justify a division into two genera. Likewise, the soil-living representatives form a closer group.

Two species are assigned to the subfamily of the Smutsiinae and the genus Smutsia :

  • Subfamily: Smutsiinae Gray , 1873
  • Smutsia Gray , 1865
  • Steppe pangolin ( Smutsia temminckii ( Smuts , 1832)); Northeast, East and South Africa
  • Giant pangolin ( Smutsia gigantea ( Illiger , 1815)); West and Central Africa

The first scientific description of Smutsia was made by John Edward Gray in 1865. His brief description was:

Upper part of fore and hind feet covered with scales to the toes. Scales broad, short. Tail moderate, very broad to the end; central series of caudal scales not continued to the end.

“Upper part of fore and hind feet covered with scales up to toes. Tail moderate, very broad towards the end; central row of tail scales does not continue to the end. "

At that time Gray only included the steppe pangolin in the genus, he led the giant pangolin as Pholidotus africanus alongside the Malay ( Manis javanica ) and the front Indian pangolin ( Manis crassicaudata ), which today belong to the genus Manis . Eight years later, Gray named the subfamily of the Smutsiinae, but he led them at the rank of tribe under the name Smutsiana. Here, too, he only saw the steppe pangolin. He had moved the giant pangolin together with the Indian pangolin to the genus Pangolin . Sometimes the arboreal pangolins of Africa were referred to the Smutsiinae. A genetic study from 2017 referred this to its own subfamily, the Phatagininae .

Tribal history

Origins and adaptations

Little is known about the origin of the genus Smutsia . The extremely agile tail as well as the strong clamp grip in young animals are indications that today's representatives are descended from arboreal ancestors. Similar characteristics typically occur in adult individuals of the species of the genus Phataginus . The extremely strong claws of the forefeet and the powerful muscles of the forelegs of the giant pangolin also point to this origin. These enable it not only to dig underground, but also to tear open very solid termite structures (the hardness of which is comparable to a 3 cm thick concrete slab). In contrast, the steppe pangolin is less adapted to a burrowing way of life and also avoids hard insect burrows. Instead, it is able to change into an upright gait, which is made possible by the more vertical position and the lighter structure of the pelvis, but also by reducing the muscle mass in the front part of the body and the associated shifting of the body's center of gravity. In the case of the giant pangolin, the pelvis is more massive and more horizontal; the strong arm muscles required for digging provide a center of gravity in front; it is therefore difficult to switch to bipedal locomotion. In comparison with the giant pangolin, the steppe pangolin is the more progressive species that has evolved more strongly from its arboreal ancestors. It is unclear where the development of the terrestrial way of life took place, whether in Africa or Asia. However, since the oldest known fossils in Africa represent ground-dwelling pangolins, this could speak for an emergence in Asia.

Fossil remains

Smutsia fossil remains are extremely rare. A partial skeleton from the Langebaanweg site in South Africa , which is close to the giant pangolin due to its size and body proportions, is significant . With an age of around 5 million years, which roughly corresponds to the beginning of the Pliocene , it is the oldest known record of pangolins. Somewhat younger are the remains of the forelimbs that were found in the East African Trench of Uganda and most likely belong to the same species. Individual remains of the steppe pangolin were found in Nelson Bay Cave , again in South Africa, and date back to the end of the Pleistocene between 12,000 and 18,000 years ago.

Threat and protection

The representatives of the genus Smutsia , like all pangolins, are heavily hunted. Their meat is considered a delicacy and thus reaches local markets as bushmeat . The scales and other body parts, on the other hand, are used in local medical practices, such as muti or juju , as they are said to have healing powers. In some regions of West Africa, locals worship the pangolins, especially the giant pangolin, also as a totem , but the custom is declining due to significant population movements as a result of regional conflicts. Since the 1990s, the ground-dwelling pangolins have also increasingly found their way into international trade, where they are mainly exported to East and Southeast Asia . They are mainly used here in traditional Chinese medicine . This trade also takes place partly through Europe, where individual animals were confiscated, for example in 2008 and 2011. The heavy hunting triggered by these causes leads to the fact that the populations of the two pangolin species in Africa are declining, locally there have already been some extinction Populations. Since 2000, the representatives of the genus Smutsia have been protected by the Washington Convention on the Protection of Species (CITES), so trade in animals or their body parts is prohibited ( CITES zero annual export quota ). In addition to human hunting, the increasing destruction of the landscape along with the expansion of human settlements and usable areas also has a negative impact on the population. Both the steppe and the giant pangolin are classified as "endangered" ( vulnerable ) by the IUCN .

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b Martha E. Heath and Jonathan Kingdon: Genus Smutsia Ground Pangolins. In: Jonathan Kingdom, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume V. Carnivores pangolins, equids and rhinoceroses. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, p. 395
  2. ↑ Martha E. Heath: Family Manidae Pangolins. In: Jonathan Kingdom, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume V. Carnivores pangolins, equids and rhinoceroses. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, p. 387
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g Jonathan Kingdon, Michael Hoffmann and Reginald Hoyt: Smutsia gigantea Giant Pangolin. In: Jonathan Kingdom, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume V. Carnivores pangolins, equids and rhinoceroses. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 396-399
  4. ↑ a b c d e Jonathan Swart: Smutsia temminckii Ground Pangolin (Temminck's Ground Pangolin, Cape Pangolin). In: Jonathan Kingdom, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume V. Carnivores pangolins, equids and rhinoceroses. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 400-405
  5. ↑ a b c d e Phillipe Gaubert: Order Pholidota. In: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 2: Hooved Mammals. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2011, ISBN 978-84-96553-77-4 , pp. 82-10
  6. ↑ a b c d e f Philippe Gaubert, Agostinho Antunes, Hao Meng, Lin Miao, Stéphane Peigné, Fabienne Justy, Flobert Njiokou, Sylvain Dufour, Emmanuel Danquah, Jayanthi Alahakoon, Erik Verheyen, William T. Stanley, Stephen J. O ' Brien, Warren E. Johnson, and Shu-Jin Luo: The Complete Phylogeny of Pangolins: Scaling Up Resources for the Molecular Tracing of the Most Trafficked Mammals on Earth. Journal of Heredity 109, 2018, pp. 347-359, doi: 10.1093 / jhered / esx097
  7. ^ A b Zelda Du Toit, J. Paul Grobler, Antoinette Kotzé, Raymond Jansen, Helene Brettschneider, and Desiré L. Dalton: The complete mitochondrial genome of Temminck's ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii; Smuts, 1832) and phylogenetic position of the Pholidota (Weber , 1904). Gene 551, 2014, pp. 49-54
  8. ↑ William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Stephen J. O'Brien, Ole Madsen, Mark Scally, Christophe J. Douady, Emma Teeling, Oliver A. Ryder, Michael J. Stanhope, Wilfried W. de Jong and Mark S. Springer : Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics. Science 294, 2001, pp. 2348-2351
  9. ↑ a b c d Timothy J. Gaudin, Robert J. Emry and John R. Wible: The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis. Journal of Mammalian Evolution 16, 2009, pp. 235-305
  10. ^ George Gaylord Simpson: The Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 85, 1945, pp. 1–350 (pp. 75 and 194–195)
  11. ↑ Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell: Classification of mammals above the species level. Columbia University Press, New York, 1997, pp. 1-631 (pp. 221-222)
  12. ^ A b John Edward Gray: Revision of the genera and species of entomophagous Edentata, founded on the examination of the specimens in the British Museum. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1865, pp. 359-386 (pp. 360, 369) ( [1] )
  13. ^ John Edward Gray: Hand-list of the edentate, thick-skinned and ruminant mammals in the British Museum. London, 1873, pp. 1–176 (p. 11) ( [2] )
  14. ↑ Jennifer Botha and Timothy Gaudin: An Early Pliocene pangolin (Mammalia; Pholidota) from Langebaahnweg, South Africa. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 27 (2), 2007, pp. 484-491
  15. ^ Richard G. Klein: The Late Quaternary Mammalian Fauna of Nelson Bay Cave (Cape Province, South Africa): Its Implications for Megafaunal Extinctions and Environmental and Cultural Change. Quaternary Research 2, 1972, pp. 135-142
  16. ↑ Timothy J. Gaudin: Pholidota. In: Lars Werdelin and William Joseph Sanders (eds.): Cenozoic Mammals of Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, London, New York, 2010, pp. 599-602
  17. ↑ Anne-Lise Chaber, Sophie Allebone-Webb, Yves Lignereux, Andrew A. Cunningham and J. Marcus Rowcliffe: The scale of illegal meat importation from Africa to Europe via Paris. Conservation Letters 3, 2010, pp. 317-323
  18. ↑ Daniel WS Challender and Lisa Hywood: African pangolins under Increased pressure from poaching and intercontinental trade. TRAFFIC Bulletin 24 (2), 2012, pp. 53-55
  19. ↑ C. Waterman, Darren W. Pietersen, L. Hywood, P. Rankin and D. Soewu: Smutsia gigantea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. ( [3] ); last accessed on January 6, 2015
  20. ↑ Darren W. Pietersen, C. Waterman, L. Hywood, P. Rankin and D. Soewu: Smutsia temminckii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. ( [4] ); last accessed on January 2, 2015

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