Appeasement and Megalodon: Difference between pages

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'''Appeasement''' is "the policy of settling international quarrels by admitting and satisfying grievances through rational negotiation and compromise, thereby avoiding the resort to an armed conflict which would be expensive, bloody, and possibly dangerous."<ref name=Kennedy/> The term is most often applied to the foreign policy of [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Neville Chamberlain]] towards [[Nazi Germany]] between 1937 and 1939.
{{Taxobox
| name = ''Megalodon''
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|18|1.5}}[[Miocene]] - [[Pleistocene]]
| image = Carcharodon megalodon P1060082.jpg
| image_width=250px
| image_caption = Reconstructed ''Carcharodon megalodon'' jaws
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrata]]
| classis = [[Chondrichthyes]]
| subclassis = [[Elasmobranchii]]
| ordo = [[Lamniformes]]
| familia = [[Lamnidae]]
| genus = ''[[Carcharodon]]''
| species = '''''C. megalodon'''''
| binomial = ''Carcharodon megalodon''
| binomial_authority = [[Louis Agassiz|Agassiz]], 1843
| synonyms =
* ''Procarcharodon megalodon'' <small>Casier, 1960</small>
}}


The '''''megalodon''''' ({{pronEng|ˡmɛ.gə.ləˌdɒn}} or ''MEG''-a-la-don; meaning "big tooth" or [[Greek language|in Greek as]] μέγας 'οδόντος) was a giant [[shark]] that lived in [[prehistoric]] times, between about 18 million to 1.5 million years ago and was the [[apex predator]] of its time. The oldest ''C. megalodon'' teeth found are about 18 million years old.<ref name="H" /> ''C. megalodon'' became extinct in the Pleistocene epoch probably about 1.5 million years ago.<ref name="E" /> It is the largest [[carnivor]]ous [[fish]] known to have existed,<ref name="H">{{Citebook|last=Renz|first=Mark|title=Megalodon: Hunting the Hunter|publisher=PaleoPress|date=2002|isbn=0-9719477-0-8}}</ref> and quite possibly the largest shark ever to have lived.
Appeasement has been the subject of debate for eighty years among academics and politicians. The historian's assessment of Chamberlain has ranged from condemnation to the judgment that he had no alternative and acted in Britain's best interests. The word "appeasement" has been used as a synonym for cowardice since the 1930s and it is still used that sense today as a justification for firm, often armed, action in international relations.


[[Scientist]]s suggest that ''C. megalodon'' could grow to more than {{convert|15|m|ft|0|lk=on}} long. This species is a member of the [[Lamnidae]] family but its classification is in dispute and a new [[genus]] has been proposed. [[Fossil]] evidence has revealed that megalodon fed upon large [[animal]]s, including the early [[whale]]s.<ref name="E">{{Citation|last=Roesch |first=Ben|title=The Cryptozoology Review: A Critical Evaluation of the Supposed Contemporary Existence of Carcharodon Megalodon|url=http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bz050/megalodon.html|year=1998}}</ref>
==The failure of collective security==


== Taxonomy ==
Chamberlain's policy of appeasement emerged out of the weakness of the [[League of Nations]] and the failure of [[collective security]]. The League of Nations was set up in the aftermath of the [[World War I|First World War]] in the hope that international cooperation and collective resistance to aggression might prevent another war. Members of the League were entitled to the assistance of other members if they came under attack. The policy of collective security ran in parallel with measures to achieve international disarmament and where possible was to be based on economic sanctions against an aggressor. It appeared to be ineffectual when confronted by the aggression of dictators, notably the [[Empire of Japan]]'s invasion of [[Manchuria]], German [[Führer]] [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Remilitarization of the Rhineland|occupation]] of the [[Rhineland]], and [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italian]] leader [[Benito Mussolini]]'s invasion of [[Ethiopia|Abyssinia]].
The [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[naturalist]], [[Louis Agassiz]], gave this shark its scientific name, ''Carcharodon megalodon'' in 1835,<ref name="A">{{Citepaper|author=Kevin G.N, Charles N.C, Gregory A.W|title=Tracing the ancestry of the GREAT WHITE SHARK|date=2006|url=http://www.biology.duke.edu/wraylab/papers/Nyberg&al_2006.pdf|format=[[PDF]]|accessdate=2007-12-25}}</ref> in his research work ''Recherches sur les poissons fossiles''<ref>{{cite book
| last = Agassiz
| first = Louis
| authorlink = Louis Agassiz
| title = Recherches sur les poissons fossiles ... / par Louis Agassiz.
| publisher = Neuchatel :Petitpierre
| year = 1833-1843
| pages = 41
| url = http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/4275
| accessdate = 2008-09-08}}</ref> (''Research on fossil [[fish]]''), which he completed in 1843. Due to the dental similarities of the [[teeth]] of the [[great white shark]], ''Carcharodon carcharias'', and megalodon, Agassiz proposed ''Carcharodon'' as the genus.<ref name="A" /> In-short, this shark is termed ''C. megalodon'' by shark researchers. However, it is often dubbed the "mega-tooth shark" or "giant white shark."<ref name="SCStateMuseum"> {{cite web |url= http://www.museum.state.sc.us/collections/natural_history/shark.aspx |title= The Giant White Shark |accessdate= 2008-09-12 |work= South Carolina State Museum - Collections - Natural History |publisher= [[South Carolina State Museum]] }}</ref>


=== Classification dispute ===
{{main|Invasion of Manchuria}}
{{userboxtop|align=right|bordercolor=lightgray|toptext=[[Cladistics#Cladograms|Cladogram]] of the ''"hastalis hypothesis"'' highlighting the position of ''C. megalodon''}}
<br/><u><center>'''Muizon ''et al.'' 1985'''<ref name="A" /></center></u>
{{clade| style=font-size:80%;line-height:80%
|label1=[[Lamniformes]]&nbsp;
|1={{clade
|label1=<font color="white">void</font>
|1={{clade
|label1=<font color="white">void</font>
|1={{clade
|label1=<font color="white">void</font>
|1=''I. hastalis''
|2={{clade
|label1=&nbsp;<font color="white">void</font>&nbsp;
|1=''Sacaco Sp.''
|2=''C. carcharias''}} }}
|label2=<font color="white">void</font>
|2='''''C. megalodon'''''
}} }} }}
<small>*<u>Note</u>: The '''hastalis hypothesis''' shows that ''C. carcharias'' is more closely related to ''I. hastalis'' than ''C. megalodon''.<ref name="A" /></small>
{{userboxbottom}}
There is a major disagreement among scientists as to how ''C. megalodon'' should be classified.<ref name="H" /><ref name="E" /> The controversy is that whether ''C. megalodon'' is a close relative of the extant great white shark or whether the two species are distant relatives. The trend among shark researchers is to dismiss the statement that ''C. megalodon'' is a close relative of the great white shark, in favor of citing [[convergent evolution]] as the reason for the dental similarity.


==== ''Megalodon'' within ''Carcharodon'' ====
In September 1931, League member Japan invaded Manchuria, a [[Republic of China|Chinese]] province. China appealed to the League and the [[United States]] for assistance. The Council of the League asked the parties to withdraw to their original positions to permit a peaceful settlement. The U.S. reminded them of their duty under the [[Kellogg-Briand Pact]] to settle matters peacefully. Japan was undeterred and went on to occupy the whole of Manchuria. The League set up a commission of inquiry that condemned Japan, the League duly adopting the report in February 1933. Japan resigned from the League and continued its advance into China. Neither the League nor the United States took any action. "Their inactivity and ineffectualness in the Far East lent every encouragement to European aggressors who planned similar acts of defiance."<ref name=Thompson>Thompson, D., ''Europe Since Napoleon'', Longmans, 1964</ref>
The traditional view is that ''C. megalodon'' should be classified within the genus ''Carcharodon'' along with the great white shark. The ''Carcharodon'' proponents suggest that ''C. megalodon'' and ''C. carcharias'' share a [[common ancestor]] known as ''Carcharodon orientalis''.<ref name="H" /><ref name="A" /><ref name="G">{{Citation|last1=Klimley|first1=Peter|last2=Ainley|first2=David|title=Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias|publisher=Academic Press|date=1996|isbn=0124150314}}</ref>


==== ''Megalodon'' within ''Carcharocles'' ====
{{main|Remilitarization of the Rhineland}}
Around 1923, the genus, '''''Carcharocles''''', was proposed by two shark researchers, D. S. Jordan and H. Hannibal, to classify a very similar shark ''C. auriculatus''. Many [[marine biologist]]s and [[paleontologist]]s are now favoring the ''Carcharocles'' genus for ''C. megalodon''.<ref name="H" /><ref name="E" /><ref name="A" /><ref name="C">{{Citeweb|last=Andres|first=Lutz|title=C. megalodon - Megatooth Shark, Carcharodon versus Carcharocles|url=http://www.fossilguy.com/topics/megshark/megshark.htm|year=2002|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref><ref name="J">{{Citeweb|last=Bowling|first=Stuart|title=C. Megalodon|url=http://greatwhite.org/frame_meg.htm|year=1997}}</ref> One reason for this shift is that the teeth of ''C. megalodon'' are also similar to the teeth of some sharks that belong to ''Carcharocles'' lineage. The ''Carcharocles'' proponents suggest that the direct ancestor of the sharks belonging to the ''Carcharocles'' genus, is an ancient shark called ''[[Otodus obliquus]]'', which lived during the [[Paleocene]] and [[Eocene]] epochs.<ref name="H" /><ref name="C" /> According to Carcharocles proponents, ''Otodus obliquus'' evolved in to ''Carcharocles aksuaticus'',<ref name="H" /><ref name="C" /> which evolved in to ''Carcharocles auriculatus'',<ref name="H" /><ref name="C" /> which evolved into ''Carcharocles augustidens'',<ref name="H" /><ref name="C" /> which evolved into ''Carcharocles chubutensis'',<ref name="H" /><ref name="C" /> which eventually evolved into megalodon.<ref name="H" /><ref name="C" /> Hence, the immediate ancestor of ''C. megalodon'' is ''Carcharocles chubutensis'',<ref name="H" /><ref name="C" /> because it serves as the missing link between ''Carcharocles augustidens'' and ''C. megalodon'' and it bridges the loss of the "lateral cusps" that characterize ''C. megalodon''.<ref name="H" /><ref name="C" />


''Carcharocles '' proponents also point out that the great white shark is more closely related to an ancient shark ''Isurus hastalis'', the "broad tooth [[Isurus|mako]]," than ''C. megalodon''. This suggestion is given credence by many scientists due to some convincing evidence.<ref name="A" /><ref name="J" /><ref name="O">{{Citeweb|last=Alter|first=Steven|title=Origin of the Modern Great White Shark |url=http://www.megalodonteeth.com/articles/article2.html|year=2001|accessdate=2008-01-13}}</ref> One reason is that the teeth of ''I. hastalis'' and ''C. carcharias'' are remarkably similar in shape, differing only in that the former lack the characteristic serrations of the latter.<ref name="H" /><ref name="A" /><ref name="O" />
In March 1936, in a challenge to the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Versailles Settlement]], Hitler sent German troops into the demilitarized [[Rhineland]]. It was a gamble for Hitler and many of his advisers opposed it. German officers had orders to withdraw if they met French resistance, but there was none. [[French Third Republic|France]] consulted Britain and lodged protests with the League. Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]] said that Britain lacked the forces to back its guarantees to France and that public opinion would not allow it. In Britain it was thought that the Germans were merely walking into "their own back yard". [[Hugh Dalton]], a [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] [[Member of Parliament|Member]] of [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] who usually advocated stiff resistance to Germany, said that neither the British people nor Labour would support either military or economic sanctions.<ref name=Taylor>Taylor, A.J.P., ''English History, 1914-1945'', Oxford University Press, 1965</ref> In the Council of the League, only the [[Soviet Union]] proposed sanctions against Germany. Hitler was invited to negotiate. He proposed a non-aggression pact with the Western powers. When asked for details he did not reply. Hitler's occupation of the Rhineland had persuaded him that the international community would not resist him and put Germany in a powerful strategic position.
== Anatomy and appearance ==


[[Image:Carcharodontosaurus and Megalodon teeth.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Carcharodontosaurus]]'' tooth from the [[Sahara Desert]] with a ''C. megalodon'' tooth, and a 25 mm diameter coin ([[Quarter (United States coin)|US quarter]]).]]
{{main|Abyssinia Crisis|Hoare-Laval Pact}}


''C. megalodon'' is known primarily from fossil teeth and a few fossilized [[vertebra|vertebral centra]].<ref name="D" >{{Citenews|last=Bruner|first=John|title=The Megatooth shark|year=1997|publisher=FLMNH|url=http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/sharks/InNews/megatoothshark.htm|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> As with all other sharks, the megalodon [[skeleton]] was formed of [[cartilage]] and not [[bone]], resulting in a poor skeletal fossil record.<ref name="E" /> The teeth are in many ways similar to great white shark teeth but are much larger and can measure up to more than 18 [[centimetre|cm]] in slant.<ref name="H" />
Mussolini had imperial ambitions in Abyssinia. [[Italy]] was already in possession of neighbouring [[Eritrea]] and [[Republic of Somaliland|Somaliland]]. In December 1934 there was a clash between Italian and Abyssinian troops at [[Walwal]], near the border between British and Italian Somaliland, in which Italian troops took possession of the disputed territory and in which 150 Abyssinians and 50 Italians were killed. When Italy demanded apologies and compensation from Abyssinia, Abyssinia appealed to the League. The League persuaded both sides to seek a settlement under a friendship treaty they had signed in 1928, but Italy continued troop movements and Abyssinia appealed to the League again. In October 1935 Mussolini launched an attack on Abyssinia. The League declared Italy to be the aggressor and imposed sanctions, but coal and oil were not included; blocking these, it was thought, would provoke war. Albania, Austria and Hungary refused to apply sanctions; Germany and the United States were not in the League. Nevertheless, the Italian economy suffered.<ref name=Taylor/>


Nevertheless, it is extrapolations from the shape and size of the teeth of ''C. megalodon'' when compared with related modern sharks and studies of their physical characteristics, that provide us with our conceptions about what this ancient super[[predator]] might have looked like in life. Thus far, the great white shark has been considered the favored model for the basis for the reconstruction of ''C. megalodon''.<ref name="G" /><ref name="D" />
In April 1935 Italy had joined Britain and France in protesting against Germany's rearmament. France was anxious to placate Mussolini so as to keep him away from an alliance with Germany. Britain was less hostile to Germany, set the pace in imposing sanctions and moved a naval fleet into the [[Mediterranean]]. But in November 1935, the British Foreign Secretary, [[Samuel Hoare|Sir Samuel Hoare]] and the French Prime Minister, [[Pierre Laval]], had secret discussions in which they agreed to concede two-thirds of Abyssinia to Italy. A public outcry forced Hoare and Laval to resign. In May 1936, undeterred by sanctions, Italy captured [[Addis Ababa]], the Abyssinian capital, and proclaimed [[Victor Emmanuel III]] the Emperor of [[Ethiopia]]. In July the League abandoned sanctions. This episode, in which sanctions were incomplete and appeared to be easily given up, seriously discredited the League.


=== Size estimation ===
==The conduct of appeasement, 1937-39==
In 1937 Stanley Baldwin resigned as Prime Minister and Neville Chamberlain took over. Chamberlain pursued a policy of appeasement and rearmament. Chamberlain's reputation for appeasement rests in large measure on his negotiations with Hitler over Czechoslovakia in 1938.


[[Image:Megalodon scale1.png|thumb|left|''Megalodon'' with the great white shark and a human for scale]] Estimating the maximum size of ''C. megalodon'' is a highly controversial subject. An early [[jaw]] reconstruction of this shark, developed by Professor [[Bashford Dean]] in 1909, indicates a length of more than {{convert|25|m|ft|0|lk=on}}, but that jaw reconstruction is now considered to be inaccurate.<ref name="D" /> One reason is that the teeth used as posteriors in this jaw reconstruction were not true posterior teeth. However, several scientists have tried to solve this issue in later years.
{{main|Munich Agreement}}
Under the Versailles Settlement, [[Czechoslovakia]] was created, including the [[Sudetenland]], which had a large German population. In April 1938, Sudeten Nazis, led by [[Konrad Henlein]] agitated for autonomy. Chamberlain, faced with the danger of a German intervention, warned Hitler that Britain might intervene. Hitler ordered an attack on Czechoslovakia. [[Lord Runciman]] was sent by Chamberlain to mediate in Prague and persuaded the Czech government to grant the Sudetans virtual autonomy. Henlein broke off negotiations and Hitler railed against Prague.


In 1973, the ichthyiologist John E. Randall suggested a method to measure the size of the large sharks.<ref name="W">{{cite journal|last=Randall|first=John|title=Size of the Great White Shark (Carcharodon)|journal=Science Magazine|pages=169–170|date= July 1973}}</ref> According to Randall, the enamel height of the largest tooth in the upper jaw of the shark can be used to determine its total length. He concluded that ''C. megalodon'' could grow to {{convert|13|m|ft|0|lk=on}}.<ref name="W" />
In September, Chamberlain flew to [[Berchtesgaden]] to negotiate directly with Hitler, hoping to avoid war. Hitler now demanded that the Sudetenland should be absorbed into Germany, convincing Chamberlain that refusal meant war. Chamberlain, with France, told the Czech president that he must hand to Germany all territory with a German majority. Czechoslovakia would thus lose 800,000 citizens, much of its industry and its mountain defences in the west. In effect, the British and French pressed their ally to cede territory to a hostile neighbour.<ref name=Thompson/>


However, in 1996, three shark experts, Michael D. Gottfried, [[Leonard Compagno|Leonard J. V. Compagno]] and S. Curtis Bowman, questioned the reliability of Randall's method. According to them, shark's tooth enamel height does not necessarily increase in proportion with the animal's total length.<ref name="G" /> Gottfried and his co-workers tried to solve this issue by means of conducting new research and analysis to create a method for measuring the size of large sharks (including ''C. megalodon'') with much greater accuracy, which was published in 1996. The proposed method is: "Megatooth's" Total Length in meters &#61; [&minus; (0.22) + (0.096) &times; (Slant height of tooth in [mm])].<ref name="G" /> This method has often been interpreted as: "Megatooth's" Total Length in meters &#61; [(0.96) &times; (Slant height of tooth in [cm] &minus; (0.22))], because it yields same results.<ref name="S" /> Using this new method, the maximum size of megalodon was calculated to be {{convert|15.9|m|ft|0|lk=on}} with a body mass of more than {{convert|50|ST|MT|0|lk=on}}.<ref name="G" /> But this calculation was based on a 168 [[millimeter|mm]] (6⅝ [[inch]]) long upper anterior tooth, which was the biggest tooth in the possession of this team at the time.<ref name="G" /> Since then, even larger ''C. megalodon'' teeth have been excavated which indicate that the shark could grow to more than {{convert|17|m|ft|0|lk=on}}.<ref name="S">{{Citeweb|last=Kowinsky|first=Jayson|title=The Size of Megalodons
Hitler then informed Chamberlain that Germany was about to occupy the Sudetenland and that the Czechoslovaks had to move out. The Czechoslovaks rejected the demand, as did the British and the French. Chamberlain persuaded Hitler to put the dispute to a four-power conference. Czechoslovakia was not to be a party to these talks. On 29 September, Hitler, Chamberlain, [[Édouard Daladier]] (the French Prime Minister) and Mussolini met in Munich. They agreed that Germany would complete its occupation of the Sudetenland, but an international commission would consider other disputed areas. Czechoslovakia was told that if it did not submit, it would stand alone. At Chamberlain's request Hitler signed a peace treaty between the United Kingdom and Germany. Chamberlain returned to England promising "peace for our time". The following March, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist, divided among Germany, [[Hungary]], Poland, and an independent [[Slovakia]].
|url=http://www.fossilguy.com/topics/megsize/megsize.htm|year=2002|accessdate=2008-01-12}}</ref>


Shark researcher Cliff Jeremiah also has suggested a method to determine the size of the large sharks, including ''C. megalodon'',<ref name="H" /> and his method is considered to be among the most reliable.<ref name="H" /> He suggested that the jaw perimeter of a shark is directly proportional to its total length, with the width of the roots of the largest teeth being a proxy for estimating jaw perimeter. For every centimeter of root width of the largest tooth, he asserts, there was approximately 4.5 feet of the shark. He concluded that ''C. megalodon'' could grow up to {{convert|18.2|m|ft|0|lk=on}}.<ref name="H" /> Many scientists acknowledge this conclusion.<ref name="H" /><ref name="N">{{cite journal|last=Riordon|first=James|title=Hell's teeth|journal=NewScientist Magazine|issue=2190|pages=32|date= June 1999|url=http://www.newscientist.com/contents/issue/2190.html}}</ref> <ref>{{Citeweb|last=Alter|first=Steven|title=Megalodon |url=http://www.megalodonteeth.com/html/article.html|date=1997|publisher=Fossil
The failure of Munich precipitated a shift in policy and Chamberlain set in place preparations for war, including an expansion of [[civil defence]].<ref name=Taylor/> In March 1939 Chamberlain assured the [[Poland|Poles]] that Britain would support them if their independence was threatened. On 1 September Hitler invaded Poland and on 3 September Britain declared war on Germany.
News - Journal of Amateur Paleontology|accessdate=2007-12-14}}</ref>


Hence, from the research of several scientists, it is clear that ''C. megalodon'' is the largest macropredatory shark that has ever lived and is among the largest fishes known to have existed.<ref name="G" />
Chamberlain's conduct of the war was not popular and on 9 May 1940 [[Winston Churchill]] became Prime Minister. Chamberlain died on 9 November the same year. Churchill delivered a tribute to him in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] in which he said, "Whatever else history may or may not say about these terrible, tremendous years, we can be sure that Neville Chamberlain acted with perfect sincerity according to his lights and strove to the utmost of his capacity and authority, which were powerful, to save the world from the awful, devastating struggle in which we are now engaged." <ref>[http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=421 Churchill's tribute to Chamberlain, 12 November 1940]</ref>


=== Jaw dentition ===
==Changing attitudes to appeasement==
[[Image:Megalodon jaws.jpg‎|thumb|right|Reconstructed ''Megalodon'' jaws on display at the National Aquarium, [[Napier, New Zealand|Napier]], [[New Zealand]]. The man in the picture is 5'10"/1.78m]]
====At the time====
A team of Japanese scientists, T. Uyeno, O. Sakamoto, and H. Sekine, discovered and excavated the partial remains of a ''C. megalodon'', with nearly complete associated set of its teeth, from [[Saitama]], Japan in 1989.<ref name="D" /> Based upon this discovery, two scientists, S. Applegate and L. Espinosa, published an artificial [[dentition|dental formula]] for ''C. megalodon'' in 1996.<ref name="D" /> Several modern ''C. megalodon'' jaw reconstructions are based on this dental formula.
Chamberlain's policy was in some respects a continuation of what had gone before and was popular until the failure of the Munich Agreement to stop Hitler in Czechoslovakia. "Appeasement" had been a respectable term between 1919 and 1937 to signify the pursuit of peace.<ref>Medlicott, W.N., Review of "The Roots of Appeasement" by M.Gilbert (1966), in ''The English Historical Review'', Vol. 83, No. 327 (Apr., 1968), p. 430</ref> Many believed after the First World War that wars were started by mistake, in which case the League could prevent them, or that they were caused by large-scale armaments, in which case disarmament was the remedy, or that they were caused by national grievances, in which case the grievances should be redressed peacefully.<ref name=Taylor/> Many thought that the Versailles Settlement had been unjust, that the German minorities were entitled to self-determination and that Germany was entitled to equality in armaments.


The dental formula of ''C. megalodon'' is:
Most Conservative politicians were in favor of appeasement, though Churchill says their supporters were divided.<ref name=Churchill>Churchill, W, ''The Gathering Storm'' Houghton Mifflin, 1986, p.290 ISBN 039541055</ref> As Chamberlain left for Munich the whole House of Commons cheered him noisily. Churchill was unusual in believing that Germany menaced freedom and democracy and should be resisted over Czechoslovakia. A week before Munich he warned, "The partition of Czechoslovakia under pressure from England and France amounts to the complete surrender of the Western Democracies to the Nazi threat of force. Such a collapse will bring peace or security neither England nor to France."<ref name=Churchill/>


{{dentition2 |2.1.7.4|3.0.8.4}}
Czechoslovakia did not concern most people until the middle of September 1938, when they began to object to a small democratic state being bullied.<ref name=GrantDuff>Grant Duff, S., ''Europe and the Czechs'', Penguin, 1938</ref><ref name=Taylor/> Nevertheless, the initial response of the British public to the Munich agreement was generally favorable.<ref name=Taylor/> On 30 September, on his return to Britain, Chamberlain delivered his famous "peace for our time" speech to delighted crowds. He was invited by the royal family on to the balcony at Buckingham Palace before he had reported to Parliament. The agreement was supported by most of the press, only ''[[Reynold's News]]'' and the ''[[The Morning Star|Daily Worker]]'' dissenting.<ref name=Taylor/>


As evident from the dental formula, ''C. megalodon'' contained four different kinds of teeth in its jaws.<ref name="D" />
In parliament the Labour Party opposed the agreement. Some Conservatives abstained in the vote. The Conservative [[Duff Cooper]], who had resigned from the government in protest against the agreement, was the only MP to advocate war.<ref name=Taylor/>


* ''Anterior'' - A
The journalist [[Shiela Grant Duff]]'s [[Penguin Group|Penguin]] Special, ''Europe and the Czechs'' was published and distributed to every MP on the day that Chamberlain returned from Munich. Her book was a spirited defence of the Czech nation and a detailed criticism of British policy, confronting the need for war if necessary. It was influential and widely read. Although she argued against the policy of "peace at almost any price"<ref name=GrantDuff/> she never actually used the word "appeasement" and did not take the personal tone that ''[[Guilty Men]]'' was to take two years later.
* ''Intermediate'' - I (In the case of ''C. megalodon'', this tooth appears to be upper anterior and is technically termed as "A3" because it is fairly symmetrical and does not points mesially, but this tooth is still designated as an intermediate tooth.<ref name="A" /> However, in the case of the great white shark, the intermediate tooth does points mesially. This point has often been raised in the ''Carcharodon'' vs. ''Carcharocles'' debate regarding the ''megalodon'' and favors the case of ''Carcharocles'' proponents.)
* ''Lateral'' - L
* ''Posterior'' - P


Paleontologists suggest that ''C. megalodon'' had a very robust dentition,<ref name="G" /> and it had a total of about 250 teeth in its jaws.<ref name="H" />
Once war broke out, appeasement was blamed for the failure to stop the dictators. The entry of Churchill as Prime Minister hardened opinion against Chamberlain. Three pro-Labour British journalists, [[Michael Foot]], [[Frank Owen (politician)|Frank Owen]] and [[Peter Howard (journalist)|Peter Howard]], writing under the name of "Cato" in their book ''Guilty Men'', damned the policy of appeasement and called for the removal from office of every appeaser. The book defined appeasement as the "deliberate surrender of small nations in the face of Hitler's blatant bullying." It was hastily written and has few claims to historical scholarship,<ref>[http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/themes/70/70401.html ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'']</ref> but ''Guilty Men'' shaped subsequent thinking about appeasement. This change in the meaning of "appeasement" after Munich was summarised later by the historian David Dilks: "The word in its normal meaning connotes the pacific settlement of disputes; in the meaning usually applied to the period of Neville Chamberlain premiership, it has come to indicate something sinister, the granting from fear or cowardice of unwarranted concessions in order to buy temporary peace at someone else's expense."<ref>Dilks, D.N., "Appeasement Revisited", ''Journal of Contemporary History'', 1972</ref>


=== Skeletal reconstruction ===
====After the war: Historians====
Aside from estimating the size of ''C. megalodon'', Gottfried and his colleagues also have tried to determine what ''C. megalodon'' might have looked like in real life.<ref name="G" /> After conducting a comprehensive analysis of the available evidence, they concluded that ''C. megalodon'' was a very robust shark and it was more massively proportioned than many modern large sharks including ''C. carcharias'' due to several reasons including:
Churchill's book ''The Gathering Storm'', published in 1948, made a similar judgement to "Guilty Men", though in moderate tones and with some claim to scholarship. This book and Churchill's authority confirmed the orthodox view.


* ''C. megalodon'' had a more massive, stouter and more strongly developed chondrocranium and jaws than those of modern macropredatory sharks, in order to functionally support a massive and very robust dentition.<ref name="G" />
Historians have subsequently explained Chamberlain's policies in various ways. It could be said <ref name=Thompson/> that he believed sincerely that the objectives of Hitler and Mussolini were limited and that the settlement of their grievances would protect the world from war; for safety, military and air power should be strengthened. Many have judged this belief to be fallacious, since the dictators' demands were not limited and appeasement gave them time to gain greater strength.
* The fins of ''C. megalodon'' were significantly larger and thicker because they needed to be adapted for propulsion and control of movements of such a massive shark.<ref name="G" />
* It had a higher vertebral count than that of any large shark including ''C. carcharias''.<ref name="G" />


Gottfried and his colleagues eventually developed a model of the entire skeleton of ''C. megalodon'' with the above mentioned characteristics, which has been put on display in Calvert Marine Museum at Solomons island, [[Maryland]] in [[USA]].<ref name="G" /><ref name="C" /><ref name="PS">{{Citebook|last=Arnold|first=Caroline|title=Giant Shark: Megalodon, Prehistoric Super Predator|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|pages=18-19|date=2000|isbn=9780395914199}}</ref>
In 1961 this view of appeasement as avoidable error and cowardice was set on its head by A.J.P. Taylor in his book ''The Origins of the Second World War''. Taylor argued that Hitler did not have a blueprint for war and was behaving much as any other German leader might have done. Appeasement was an active policy, and not a passive one; allowing Hitler to consolidate himself was a policy implemented by "men confronted with real problems, doing their best in the circumstances of their time". Taylor said that appeasement ought to be seen as a rational response to an unpredictable leader, suited to the time both diplomatically and politically.


== Distribution, range and habitat ==
His view has been shared by other historians, for example, [[Paul Kennedy]], who says of the choices facing politicians at the time, "Each course brought its share of disadvantages: there was only a choice of evils. The crisis in the British global position by this time was such that it was, in the last resort, insoluble, in the sense that there was no good or proper solution."<ref name=Kennedy>Kennedy, P. ''Strategy and Diplomacy'', 1983</ref> [[Martin Gilbert]] has expressed a similar view: "At bottom, the old appeasement was a mood of hope, Victorian in its optimism, Burkean in its belief that societies evolved from bad to good and that progress could only be for the better. The new appeasement was a mood of fear, Hobbesian in its insistence upon swallowing the bad in order to preserve some remnant of the good, pessimistic in its belief that Nazism was there to stay and, however horrible it might be, should be accepted as a way of life with which Britain ought to deal."<ref>Gilbert, M., ''The Roots of Appeasement'', 1968</ref>
''C. megalodon'' was a [[pelagic]] fish and it thrived in all the [[ocean]]s of the world in its time, indicating dominance over the marine world. The teeth of this ancient shark have been excavated from many parts of the world, including [[Europe]], [[North America]], [[South America]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Japan]], [[South Africa]], [[Malta]] and [[India]].<ref name="H" /><ref name="D" />


''C. megalodon'' most likely inhabited warm water regions around the world.<ref name="E" /> Its range would not have been constricted by its reliance on warm waters as the oceans were noticeably warmer during the [[Miocene]] and early [[Pliocene]]. This would have made it possible for this species to flourish around the world, as evident from the fossil records.
The arguments in Taylor's ''Origins of the Second World War'' (sometimes described as "revisionist"<ref name=Taylor/><ref name=Dimuccio>Dimuccio, R.A.B., "The Study of Appeasement in International Relations: Polemics, Paradigms, and Problems", ''Journal of Peace Research'', Vol. 35, No. 2, March 1998</ref>) were rejected by many historians at the time and reviews of his book in the UK and USA were generally critical. Nevertheless, he was praised for some of his insights. By showing that appeasement was a popular policy and that there was continuity in British foreign policy after 1933, he shattered the common view of the appeasers as a small, degenerate clique that had mysteriously hijacked the British government sometime in the 1930s and who had carried out their policies in the face of massive public resistance; and by portraying the leaders of the 1930s as real people attempting to deal with real problems, he made the first strides towards attempting to explain the actions of the appeasers rather than merely to condemn them.


== Paleoecology ==
In the early 1990s a new theory of appeasement, sometimes called "counter-revisionist",<ref name=Dimuccio/> emerged as historians argued that appeasement was probably the only choice for the British government in the 1930s, but that it was poorly implemented, carried out too late and not enforced strongly enough to constrain Hitler. Appeasement was considered a viable policy, considering the strains that the British Empire faced in recuperating from World War I, and Chamberlain was said to have adopted a policy suitable to Britain's cultural and political needs. McDonough, who represents this point of view,<ref>See, for example, McDonough, F., Brown, R., and Smith, D., ''Hitler, Chamberlain and Appeasement'', 2002</ref> describes appeasement as a crisis management strategy seeking a peaceful settlement of Hitler's grievances. "Chamberlain's worst error," he says, "was to believe that he could march Hitler on the yellow brick road to peace when in reality Hitler was marching very firmly on the road to war."
=== Diet ===
[[Image:MEG1.jpg|thumb|An artistic depiction of a ''Megalodon'' chasing two juvenile [[whale]]s]]
It is believed that ''C. megalodon'' would have had a huge appetite, which would be necessary for sustenance of its enormous bulk.<ref name="PS" /> It was contemporaneous with a large variety of marine animals, including various species of whales. Several whale vertebrae and bones have been found with clear signs of large bite marks made by the teeth that match those of ''C. megalodon''.<ref name="H" /><ref name="G" /><ref name="D" /> The teeth of ''C. megalodon'' are serrated,<ref name="H" /><ref name="A" /> which would have improved efficiency in slicing the [[flesh]] of prey items. Various excavations have revealed ''C. megalodon'' teeth lying close to the chewed remains of whales.<ref name="G" /><ref name="C" /> This evidence suggests a predator-prey relationship between ''C. megalodon'' and large marine animals including whales <ref name="D" /> (e.g. [[sperm whale]]s,<ref name="H" /> ''[[Cetotherium]]'',<ref name="E" /> and ''[[Odobenocetops]]''<ref>{{Citeweb|title=Fact File: Odobenocetops |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/seamonsters/factfiles/odobenocetops.shtml|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2008-03-21}}</ref>), [[sirenian]]s,<ref name="H" /> [[dolphin]]s,<ref name="H" /> and [[pinniped]]s.<ref name="E" />
Like other sharks, ''C. megalodon'' was certainly [[piscivorous]] as well.<ref name="E" /><ref name="PS" />


====After the war: Politicians====
=== Behavior ===
Most sharks are opportunistic [[predator]]s and rely on a broad spectrum of prey coupled with scavenging. ''C. megalodon'' was unlikely to have been an exception to this rule.<ref name="E" /> Some large sharks (including the great white shark) employ ambush strategies against their prey during hunting. A shark usually attacks its prey with great force in the first attempt to inflict maximum possible damage. Then it circles its prey and waits for it to weaken, before dispatching it without facing any resistance. Some paleontologists suggest that ''C. megalodon'' also may have employed a similar hunting strategy against large potential prey, like adult whales. Several fossilized flipper bones, and caudal vertebrae of whales have been found with bite marks that were caused by the attacks from ''C. megalodon''.<ref name="H" /><ref name="G" /> This evidence indicates that ''C. megalodon'' most likely injured and immobilized its prey by biting off its propulsive structures, before proceeding to feed on it.<ref name="H" /><ref name="G" />
Statesmen in the post-war years have often referred to appeasement as a justification for firm, sometimes armed, action in international relations.


However, remains of a large prehistoric baleen whale have been excavated from [[Chesapeake Bay]], which provided the first opportunity to quantitatively analyse the feeding behavior of ''C. megalodon'', and this specimen revealed that the attacking behavior of ''C. megalodon'' may have been more aggressive than that of the great white shark.<ref name="N" /> One reason is that the shark apparently focused its attack on the bony portions of the prey, which great white sharks generally avoid.<ref name="N" />
US President [[Harry S. Truman]] thus explained his decision to enter the [[Korean war]] in 1950, British Prime Minister [[Sir Anthony Eden]] his confrontation of [[Egypt|Egyptian]] President [[Gamal Abdul Nasser]] in the [[Suez crisis]] of 1956, US President [[John F. Kennedy]] his "[[Cuba Missile Crisis|quarantine]]" of Cuba in 1962, US President [[Lyndon Johnson]] his resistance to communism in [[Indo-China]] in the 1960s and US President [[Ronald Reagan]] his air strike on [[Libya]] in 1986.<ref>Beck, R.J., "Munich's Lessons Reconsidered", ''International Security'', Vol. 14, No. 2, (Autumn, 1989), pp. 161-191</ref>


From fossil evidence, juvenile ''C. megalodon'' individuals would mostly prefer to attack small-to-medium sized prey, such as [[porpoise]]s, other sharks, [[pinniped]]s and juvenile whales. Hence, through [[ontogeny]] ''C. megalodon'' proceeded to hunt larger animals.<ref name="G" /> In addition, fossil evidence suggests that the preferred breeding grounds of ''C. megalodon'' were mostly warm coastal regions.<ref name="G" />
British Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] invoked the example of Churchill during the [[Falklands war]] of 1982: "When the American Secretary of State, [[Alexander Haig]], urged her to reach a compromise with the [[Argentinia|Argentineans]] she rapped sharply on the table and told him, pointedly, 'that this was the table at which Neville Chamberlain sat in 1938 and spoke of the Czechs as a faraway people about whom we know so little'." <ref name=ChurchillCollege>[http://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/churchill_era/exercises/appeasement/ Churchill College archives]</ref>


== Extinction hypotheses ==
The spectre of appeasement was raised in discussions of the [[Yugoslav wars]] of the 1990s.<ref>Vuilliamy, E., "Bosnia: The Crime of Appeasement", ''International Affairs '', 1998, pp. 73-91 Year: 1998</ref> US President [[George W. Bush]] and British Prime minister [[Tony Blair]] also cited Churchill's warnings about German rearmament to justify their action in the run-up to the 2003 Gulf War. <ref name=ChurchillCollege/> In May 2008, President George W. Bush warned against "the false comfort of appeasement" when dealing with [[Iran]] and its President [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]].<ref>Thomas, E., "The Mythology of Munich", ''Newsweek'', 23 June, 2008, Vol. 151, Issue 25, pp. 22-26</ref>
[[Image:Carcharodon megalodon.jpg|thumb|Man sitting on ''Carcharodon megalodon'' jaws]]
There are several hypotheses as to how an apex predator like ''C. megalodon'' suddenly became [[extinct]] after millions of years of existence. However, the extinction of large-bodied marine predators, such as [[pliosaur]]s, [[mosasaur]]s, [[ichthyosaur]]s and ''[[Basilosaurus]]'', are instructive as to the possible mechanism involved.


Scientists believe that ''C. megalodon'' disappeared due to a variety of reasons.<ref name="E" /> The geological and [[Climate|climatic]] conditions of the world when ''C. megalodon'' existed, were considerably different from those now. It is possible that these major climatic changes may have been unfavorable for ''C. megalodon''. Some notable climatic shifts are:
==References==
{{reflist|2}}


* During the late Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs there were significant [[ice age]]s,<ref>{{Citeweb|title=Pliocene epoch|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/pli.html|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref><ref>{{Citeweb|title=Pliestocene epoch|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/ple.html|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> which cooled the oceans significantly.<ref name="D" />
==Further reading==
* From the fossil record, whale migratory patterns from the end Pliocene have been reconstructed, suggesting that some species migrated to [[polar region]]s, effectively "getting out of the range" of ''C. megalodon''.<ref name="E" /><ref name="D" />
* Adams, R.J.Q.,''British Politics and Foreign Policy in the Age of Appeasement, 1935-1939''
* Prolonged disturbance of food chains can wipe out predators with massive metabolic requirements. During the Pliocene, some species of whales and dolphins (e.g. ''[[Odobenocetops]]'' and ''[[Cetotherium]]'') became extinct. As these species would most likely have been among the potential prey of ''C. megalodon'',<ref name="E" /> sustaining the dietary requirements of such a large predator would have become increasingly difficult.
* Alexandroff A. and Rosecrance R., "Deterrence in 1939," World Politics, Vol. 29, No. 3. (Apr., 1977), pp. 404-424.
* In addition, wide-scale [[glaciation]] trapped much of the oceanic [[salt]] water during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene through-out the ice ages. At its height sea levels dropped significantly, restricting many shallow coastal areas, that have been thought to serve as breeding grounds for the ''C. megalodon'' pups.<ref name="E" />
* Beck R.J., "Munich's Lessons Reconsidered" in ''International Security'', 14, 1989
* Cameron Watt D.,, ''How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939'', 1989
* Charmley J., ''Chamberlain and the Lost Peace'' (1989)
* Cockett R., ''Twilight of Truth: Chamberlain, Appeasement, and the Manipulation of the Press'', 1989
* Doer P.W., ''British Foreign Policy 1919-39''
* Dutton D., ''Anthony Eden: A Life and Reputation''
* Dutton D., ''Neville Chamberlain''
* Farmer A., ''British Foreign and Imperial Affairs 1919-39''
* Hill C., ''Cabinet Decisions on Foreign Policy: The British Experience, October 1938-June 1941'', 1991
* Jenkins R., ''Baldwin''
* Jenkins, R., ''Churchill''
* Levy J., ''Appeasement and Rearmament: Britain, 1936-1939'', 2006
* Neville P., ''Hitler and Appeasement: The British Attempt to Prevent the Second World War'', 2005
* Owen P., ''The Parting of Ways: A Personal Account of the Thirties'', 1982, ISBN 0-7206-0586-5
* Post G., ''Dilemmas of Appeasement: British Deterrence and Defense, 1934-1937'', Cornell University Press, 1993
* Rock S.R., ''Appeasement in International Politics'', 2000
* Rock W.R., ''British Appeasement in the 1930s''
* Shay R.P., ''British Rearmament in the Thirties: Politics and Profits'', Princeton University Press, 1977
* Thorpe D.R., ''Eden''
*Mommsen W.J. and Kettenacker L. (eds), ''The Fascist Challenge And The Policy Of Appeasement'', London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983 ISBN 0-04-940068-1.
*Peden G. C., "A Matter of Timing: The Economic Background to British Foreign Policy, 1937-1939," in ''History'', 69, 1984
*Wheeler-Bennett J., 'Munich: Prologue to Tragedy'', New York, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1948


Consequently, a hypothesis can be constructed, that at the end of the Pliocene, the polar seas became too cold for ''C. megalodon'' to survive. Several species of whales, including cetotheriids, became extinct during the late Pliocene, while some whale species showed a trend towards the cooler polar regions. Many of the shallow warm water regions dried out at that time, that may have been breeding grounds for ''C. megalodon''. As such, these significant disturbances in the [[ecosystem]] would have caused major problems for ''C. megalodon''. Being unable to follow the surviving whale species into the polar seas the food supply of ''C. megalodon'' lessened, which over time lead to the extinction of the species.<ref name="E" />


== In fiction and popular culture ==
==See also==
Ever since the remains of ''C. megalodon'' were discovered, it has been an object of fascination. It has been portrayed in several works of [[fiction]], including films and novels, and continues to hold its place among the most popular subjects for fictional works involving [[sea monsters]]. It is interesting to note that many of these works of fiction posit that at least some ''C. megalodon'' actually survived extinction and lurk in the depths of the ocean. In such works, the megalodon is usually shown to surface from the vast depths of the oceans, either as a result of human intervention or through natural means.


=== Films ===
*[[Danegeld]] - The term has come to be used as a warning and a criticism of paying any coercive payment whether in money or kind.
* ''Shark Hunter'' (2001)
*[[Finlandization]] - the influence that one neighbouring powerful country can have on the policies of a smaller nearby country
* ''[[Shark Attack 3: Megalodon]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Megalodon (film)|Megalodon]]'' (2002)
* ''Hai-Alarm auf Mallorca'' (2004)
* ''Meg'' (2005)

=== Novels ===
* ''Extinct'' Charles Wilson (1997)
* The "[[Meg: A Novel of Deep Terror|Meg]]" series by [[Steve Alten]] (1997 - current)
* ''From the Dark Below'' Cari McKnight (2001)

=== Television ===
* ''[[Chased by Sea Monsters|Sea Monsters: A Walking with Dinosaurs Trilogy]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Jurassic Fight Club]]'' (2008)

=== Games ===
* ''Shark! Hunting the Great White'' (2001)
* ''Sea Monsters Adventure'' (2003)

=== Music ===
* ''Megalodon'' - A song on the 2004 album [[Leviathan (album)|Leviathan]] by [[Mastodon (band)|Mastodon]]

== See also ==
* [[List of sharks]]
* [[Prehistoric fish]]
* [[List of apex predators]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}


== External links ==
{{Commons|Megalodon}}
{{Wikispecies|Carcharodon megalodon}}
{{Sharksportal}}
{{portal|Paleontology}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7540835.stm Ancient shark had colossal bite] from [[BBC]]
* [http://www.sdnhm.org/exhibits/mystery/fg_megalodon.html Fossil Field Guide, Carcharodon Megalodon] from San Diego Natural History Museum
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/seamonsters/factfiles/megalodon.shtml Fact File: Megalodon] from BBC, with pictures and video
* [http://www.tellmewhereonearth.com/images/Web%20Photos/Megalodon_Jaw.BMP An impressive photograph of Megalodon's jaw]
* [http://www.tellmewhereonearth.com/Web%20Pages/Sharks/Sharks%20Photos/Megalodon_jaw_Columbia_SC_museum.JPG Megalodon jaws on display in South Carolina State Museum]
* [http://ww1.prweb.com/prfiles/2004/06/01/130554/Steve_in_BIGGEST_jaws_B___W.jpg The largest modern Megalodon jaw reconstruction in the world] (NOTE: Reconstructed by Vito Bertucci)


=== Educational videos ===
{{anti-war}}
* [http://www.bristolfilmstudios.com/pages/perfect_shark/index.php A video clip of the Perfect Shark (2006) program] from [[BBC]]
* [http://dsc.discovery.com/video/player.html?bctid=17041381 Long Ago, in the Chesapeake Bay] from [[Discovery Channel]] (NOTE: [[Adobe Flash Player|Flash Player]] required)
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZVOSVIt5HaU Paleoworld - Megalodon] (NOTE: [[Adobe Flash Player|Flash Player]] required)


[[Category:Peace]]
[[Category:Lamnidae]]
[[Category:Politics of World War II]]
[[Category:Miocene fish]]
[[Category:Political terms]]
[[Category:Pliocene fish]]
[[Category:Pleistocene fish]]
[[Category:Prehistoric fish]]
[[Category:Prehistoric sharks]]


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Revision as of 13:47, 12 October 2008

For other uses, see Megalodon (disambiguation).

Megalodon
Temporal range: 18–1.5 Ma Miocene - Pleistocene
Reconstructed Carcharodon megalodon jaws
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Subphylum:
Vertebrata
Class:
Chondrichthyes
Subclass:
Elasmobranchii
Order:
Lamniformes
Family:
Lamnidae
Genus:
Carcharodon
Species:
C. megalodon
Binomial name
Carcharodon megalodon
Agassiz, 1843
Synonyms
  • Procarcharodon megalodon Casier, 1960

The megalodon (Template:PronEng or MEG-a-la-don; meaning "big tooth" or in Greek as μέγας 'οδόντος) was a giant shark that lived in prehistoric times, between about 18 million to 1.5 million years ago and was the apex predator of its time. The oldest C. megalodon teeth found are about 18 million years old.[1] C. megalodon became extinct in the Pleistocene epoch probably about 1.5 million years ago.[2] It is the largest carnivorous fish known to have existed,[1] and quite possibly the largest shark ever to have lived.

Scientists suggest that C. megalodon could grow to more than 15 metres (49 ft) long. This species is a member of the Lamnidae family but its classification is in dispute and a new genus has been proposed. Fossil evidence has revealed that megalodon fed upon large animals, including the early whales.[2]

Taxonomy

The Swiss naturalist, Louis Agassiz, gave this shark its scientific name, Carcharodon megalodon in 1835,[3] in his research work Recherches sur les poissons fossiles[4] (Research on fossil fish), which he completed in 1843. Due to the dental similarities of the teeth of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, and megalodon, Agassiz proposed Carcharodon as the genus.[3] In-short, this shark is termed C. megalodon by shark researchers. However, it is often dubbed the "mega-tooth shark" or "giant white shark."[5]

Classification dispute

There is a major disagreement among scientists as to how C. megalodon should be classified.[1][2] The controversy is that whether C. megalodon is a close relative of the extant great white shark or whether the two species are distant relatives. The trend among shark researchers is to dismiss the statement that C. megalodon is a close relative of the great white shark, in favor of citing convergent evolution as the reason for the dental similarity.

Megalodon within Carcharodon

The traditional view is that C. megalodon should be classified within the genus Carcharodon along with the great white shark. The Carcharodon proponents suggest that C. megalodon and C. carcharias share a common ancestor known as Carcharodon orientalis.[1][3][6]

Megalodon within Carcharocles

Around 1923, the genus, Carcharocles, was proposed by two shark researchers, D. S. Jordan and H. Hannibal, to classify a very similar shark C. auriculatus. Many marine biologists and paleontologists are now favoring the Carcharocles genus for C. megalodon.[1][2][3][7][8] One reason for this shift is that the teeth of C. megalodon are also similar to the teeth of some sharks that belong to Carcharocles lineage. The Carcharocles proponents suggest that the direct ancestor of the sharks belonging to the Carcharocles genus, is an ancient shark called Otodus obliquus, which lived during the Paleocene and Eocene epochs.[1][7] According to Carcharocles proponents, Otodus obliquus evolved in to Carcharocles aksuaticus,[1][7] which evolved in to Carcharocles auriculatus,[1][7] which evolved into Carcharocles augustidens,[1][7] which evolved into Carcharocles chubutensis,[1][7] which eventually evolved into megalodon.[1][7] Hence, the immediate ancestor of C. megalodon is Carcharocles chubutensis,[1][7] because it serves as the missing link between Carcharocles augustidens and C. megalodon and it bridges the loss of the "lateral cusps" that characterize C. megalodon.[1][7]

Carcharocles proponents also point out that the great white shark is more closely related to an ancient shark Isurus hastalis, the "broad tooth mako," than C. megalodon. This suggestion is given credence by many scientists due to some convincing evidence.[3][8][9] One reason is that the teeth of I. hastalis and C. carcharias are remarkably similar in shape, differing only in that the former lack the characteristic serrations of the latter.[1][3][9]

Anatomy and appearance

Carcharodontosaurus tooth from the Sahara Desert with a C. megalodon tooth, and a 25 mm diameter coin (US quarter).

C. megalodon is known primarily from fossil teeth and a few fossilized vertebral centra.[10] As with all other sharks, the megalodon skeleton was formed of cartilage and not bone, resulting in a poor skeletal fossil record.[2] The teeth are in many ways similar to great white shark teeth but are much larger and can measure up to more than 18 cm in slant.[1]

Nevertheless, it is extrapolations from the shape and size of the teeth of C. megalodon when compared with related modern sharks and studies of their physical characteristics, that provide us with our conceptions about what this ancient superpredator might have looked like in life. Thus far, the great white shark has been considered the favored model for the basis for the reconstruction of C. megalodon.[6][10]

Size estimation

Megalodon with the great white shark and a human for scale

Estimating the maximum size of C. megalodon is a highly controversial subject. An early jaw reconstruction of this shark, developed by Professor Bashford Dean in 1909, indicates a length of more than 25 metres (82 ft), but that jaw reconstruction is now considered to be inaccurate.[10] One reason is that the teeth used as posteriors in this jaw reconstruction were not true posterior teeth. However, several scientists have tried to solve this issue in later years.

In 1973, the ichthyiologist John E. Randall suggested a method to measure the size of the large sharks.[11] According to Randall, the enamel height of the largest tooth in the upper jaw of the shark can be used to determine its total length. He concluded that C. megalodon could grow to 13 metres (43 ft).[11]

However, in 1996, three shark experts, Michael D. Gottfried, Leonard J. V. Compagno and S. Curtis Bowman, questioned the reliability of Randall's method. According to them, shark's tooth enamel height does not necessarily increase in proportion with the animal's total length.[6] Gottfried and his co-workers tried to solve this issue by means of conducting new research and analysis to create a method for measuring the size of large sharks (including C. megalodon) with much greater accuracy, which was published in 1996. The proposed method is: "Megatooth's" Total Length in meters = [− (0.22) + (0.096) × (Slant height of tooth in [mm])].[6] This method has often been interpreted as: "Megatooth's" Total Length in meters = [(0.96) × (Slant height of tooth in [cm] − (0.22))], because it yields same results.[12] Using this new method, the maximum size of megalodon was calculated to be 15.9 metres (52 ft) with a body mass of more than 50 short tons (45 t).[6] But this calculation was based on a 168 mm (6⅝ inch) long upper anterior tooth, which was the biggest tooth in the possession of this team at the time.[6] Since then, even larger C. megalodon teeth have been excavated which indicate that the shark could grow to more than 17 metres (56 ft).[12]

Shark researcher Cliff Jeremiah also has suggested a method to determine the size of the large sharks, including C. megalodon,[1] and his method is considered to be among the most reliable.[1] He suggested that the jaw perimeter of a shark is directly proportional to its total length, with the width of the roots of the largest teeth being a proxy for estimating jaw perimeter. For every centimeter of root width of the largest tooth, he asserts, there was approximately 4.5 feet of the shark. He concluded that C. megalodon could grow up to 18.2 metres (60 ft).[1] Many scientists acknowledge this conclusion.[1][13] [14]

Hence, from the research of several scientists, it is clear that C. megalodon is the largest macropredatory shark that has ever lived and is among the largest fishes known to have existed.[6]

Jaw dentition

Reconstructed Megalodon jaws on display at the National Aquarium, Napier, New Zealand. The man in the picture is 5'10"/1.78m

A team of Japanese scientists, T. Uyeno, O. Sakamoto, and H. Sekine, discovered and excavated the partial remains of a C. megalodon, with nearly complete associated set of its teeth, from Saitama, Japan in 1989.[10] Based upon this discovery, two scientists, S. Applegate and L. Espinosa, published an artificial dental formula for C. megalodon in 1996.[10] Several modern C. megalodon jaw reconstructions are based on this dental formula.

The dental formula of C. megalodon is:

Dentition
2.1.7.4
3.0.8.4

As evident from the dental formula, C. megalodon contained four different kinds of teeth in its jaws.[10]

  • Anterior - A
  • Intermediate - I (In the case of C. megalodon, this tooth appears to be upper anterior and is technically termed as "A3" because it is fairly symmetrical and does not points mesially, but this tooth is still designated as an intermediate tooth.[3] However, in the case of the great white shark, the intermediate tooth does points mesially. This point has often been raised in the Carcharodon vs. Carcharocles debate regarding the megalodon and favors the case of Carcharocles proponents.)
  • Lateral - L
  • Posterior - P

Paleontologists suggest that C. megalodon had a very robust dentition,[6] and it had a total of about 250 teeth in its jaws.[1]

Skeletal reconstruction

Aside from estimating the size of C. megalodon, Gottfried and his colleagues also have tried to determine what C. megalodon might have looked like in real life.[6] After conducting a comprehensive analysis of the available evidence, they concluded that C. megalodon was a very robust shark and it was more massively proportioned than many modern large sharks including C. carcharias due to several reasons including:

  • C. megalodon had a more massive, stouter and more strongly developed chondrocranium and jaws than those of modern macropredatory sharks, in order to functionally support a massive and very robust dentition.[6]
  • The fins of C. megalodon were significantly larger and thicker because they needed to be adapted for propulsion and control of movements of such a massive shark.[6]
  • It had a higher vertebral count than that of any large shark including C. carcharias.[6]

Gottfried and his colleagues eventually developed a model of the entire skeleton of C. megalodon with the above mentioned characteristics, which has been put on display in Calvert Marine Museum at Solomons island, Maryland in USA.[6][7][15]

Distribution, range and habitat

C. megalodon was a pelagic fish and it thrived in all the oceans of the world in its time, indicating dominance over the marine world. The teeth of this ancient shark have been excavated from many parts of the world, including Europe, North America, South America, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Africa, Malta and India.[1][10]

C. megalodon most likely inhabited warm water regions around the world.[2] Its range would not have been constricted by its reliance on warm waters as the oceans were noticeably warmer during the Miocene and early Pliocene. This would have made it possible for this species to flourish around the world, as evident from the fossil records.

Paleoecology

Diet

File:MEG1.jpg
An artistic depiction of a Megalodon chasing two juvenile whales

It is believed that C. megalodon would have had a huge appetite, which would be necessary for sustenance of its enormous bulk.[15] It was contemporaneous with a large variety of marine animals, including various species of whales. Several whale vertebrae and bones have been found with clear signs of large bite marks made by the teeth that match those of C. megalodon.[1][6][10] The teeth of C. megalodon are serrated,[1][3] which would have improved efficiency in slicing the flesh of prey items. Various excavations have revealed C. megalodon teeth lying close to the chewed remains of whales.[6][7] This evidence suggests a predator-prey relationship between C. megalodon and large marine animals including whales [10] (e.g. sperm whales,[1] Cetotherium,[2] and Odobenocetops[16]), sirenians,[1] dolphins,[1] and pinnipeds.[2] Like other sharks, C. megalodon was certainly piscivorous as well.[2][15]

Behavior

Most sharks are opportunistic predators and rely on a broad spectrum of prey coupled with scavenging. C. megalodon was unlikely to have been an exception to this rule.[2] Some large sharks (including the great white shark) employ ambush strategies against their prey during hunting. A shark usually attacks its prey with great force in the first attempt to inflict maximum possible damage. Then it circles its prey and waits for it to weaken, before dispatching it without facing any resistance. Some paleontologists suggest that C. megalodon also may have employed a similar hunting strategy against large potential prey, like adult whales. Several fossilized flipper bones, and caudal vertebrae of whales have been found with bite marks that were caused by the attacks from C. megalodon.[1][6] This evidence indicates that C. megalodon most likely injured and immobilized its prey by biting off its propulsive structures, before proceeding to feed on it.[1][6]

However, remains of a large prehistoric baleen whale have been excavated from Chesapeake Bay, which provided the first opportunity to quantitatively analyse the feeding behavior of C. megalodon, and this specimen revealed that the attacking behavior of C. megalodon may have been more aggressive than that of the great white shark.[13] One reason is that the shark apparently focused its attack on the bony portions of the prey, which great white sharks generally avoid.[13]

From fossil evidence, juvenile C. megalodon individuals would mostly prefer to attack small-to-medium sized prey, such as porpoises, other sharks, pinnipeds and juvenile whales. Hence, through ontogeny C. megalodon proceeded to hunt larger animals.[6] In addition, fossil evidence suggests that the preferred breeding grounds of C. megalodon were mostly warm coastal regions.[6]

Extinction hypotheses

Man sitting on Carcharodon megalodon jaws

There are several hypotheses as to how an apex predator like C. megalodon suddenly became extinct after millions of years of existence. However, the extinction of large-bodied marine predators, such as pliosaurs, mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs and Basilosaurus, are instructive as to the possible mechanism involved.

Scientists believe that C. megalodon disappeared due to a variety of reasons.[2] The geological and climatic conditions of the world when C. megalodon existed, were considerably different from those now. It is possible that these major climatic changes may have been unfavorable for C. megalodon. Some notable climatic shifts are:

  • During the late Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs there were significant ice ages,[17][18] which cooled the oceans significantly.[10]
  • From the fossil record, whale migratory patterns from the end Pliocene have been reconstructed, suggesting that some species migrated to polar regions, effectively "getting out of the range" of C. megalodon.[2][10]
  • Prolonged disturbance of food chains can wipe out predators with massive metabolic requirements. During the Pliocene, some species of whales and dolphins (e.g. Odobenocetops and Cetotherium) became extinct. As these species would most likely have been among the potential prey of C. megalodon,[2] sustaining the dietary requirements of such a large predator would have become increasingly difficult.
  • In addition, wide-scale glaciation trapped much of the oceanic salt water during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene through-out the ice ages. At its height sea levels dropped significantly, restricting many shallow coastal areas, that have been thought to serve as breeding grounds for the C. megalodon pups.[2]

Consequently, a hypothesis can be constructed, that at the end of the Pliocene, the polar seas became too cold for C. megalodon to survive. Several species of whales, including cetotheriids, became extinct during the late Pliocene, while some whale species showed a trend towards the cooler polar regions. Many of the shallow warm water regions dried out at that time, that may have been breeding grounds for C. megalodon. As such, these significant disturbances in the ecosystem would have caused major problems for C. megalodon. Being unable to follow the surviving whale species into the polar seas the food supply of C. megalodon lessened, which over time lead to the extinction of the species.[2]

In fiction and popular culture

Ever since the remains of C. megalodon were discovered, it has been an object of fascination. It has been portrayed in several works of fiction, including films and novels, and continues to hold its place among the most popular subjects for fictional works involving sea monsters. It is interesting to note that many of these works of fiction posit that at least some C. megalodon actually survived extinction and lurk in the depths of the ocean. In such works, the megalodon is usually shown to surface from the vast depths of the oceans, either as a result of human intervention or through natural means.

Films

Novels

  • Extinct Charles Wilson (1997)
  • The "Meg" series by Steve Alten (1997 - current)
  • From the Dark Below Cari McKnight (2001)

Television

Games

  • Shark! Hunting the Great White (2001)
  • Sea Monsters Adventure (2003)

Music

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab Renz, Mark (2002). Megalodon: Hunting the Hunter. PaleoPress. ISBN 0-9719477-0-8.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Roesch, Ben (1998), The Cryptozoology Review: A Critical Evaluation of the Supposed Contemporary Existence of Carcharodon Megalodon
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Kevin G.N, Charles N.C, Gregory A.W (2006). "Tracing the ancestry of the GREAT WHITE SHARK" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-25. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Agassiz, Louis (1833–1843). Recherches sur les poissons fossiles ... / par Louis Agassiz. Neuchatel :Petitpierre. p. 41. Retrieved 2008-09-08.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  5. ^ "The Giant White Shark". South Carolina State Museum - Collections - Natural History. South Carolina State Museum. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Klimley, Peter; Ainley, David (1996), Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias, Academic Press, ISBN 0124150314
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Andres, Lutz (2002). "C. megalodon - Megatooth Shark, Carcharodon versus Carcharocles". Retrieved 2008-01-16.
  8. ^ a b Bowling, Stuart (1997). "C. Megalodon".
  9. ^ a b Alter, Steven (2001). "Origin of the Modern Great White Shark". Retrieved 2008-01-13.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Bruner, John (1997). "The Megatooth shark". FLMNH. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
  11. ^ a b Randall, John (July 1973). "Size of the Great White Shark (Carcharodon)". Science Magazine: 169–170.
  12. ^ a b Kowinsky, Jayson (2002). "The Size of Megalodons". Retrieved 2008-01-12.
  13. ^ a b c Riordon, James (June 1999). "Hell's teeth". NewScientist Magazine (2190): 32.
  14. ^ Alter, Steven (1997). "Megalodon". Fossil News - Journal of Amateur Paleontology. Retrieved 2007-12-14. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |publisher= at position 7 (help)
  15. ^ a b c Arnold, Caroline (2000). Giant Shark: Megalodon, Prehistoric Super Predator. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 18–19. ISBN 9780395914199.
  16. ^ "Fact File: Odobenocetops". BBC. Retrieved 2008-03-21.
  17. ^ "Pliocene epoch". Retrieved 2008-01-16.
  18. ^ "Pliestocene epoch". Retrieved 2008-01-16.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Megalodon.
Wikispecies has information related to Carcharodon megalodon.

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