White shark

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White shark
White shark.jpg

Great White Shark ( Carcharodon carcharias )

Systematics
without rank: Sharks (selachii)
Superordinate : Galeomorphii
Order : Mackerel shark (Lamniformes)
Family : Mackerel Sharks (Lamnidae)
Genre : Carcharodon
Type : White shark
Scientific name of the  genus
Carcharodon
Smith , 1838
Scientific name of the  species
Carcharodon carcharias
( Linnaeus , 1758)

The great white shark ( Carcharodon carcharias ), more rarely also known as white shark or human shark , is the only species of the genus Carcharodon from the family of mackerel sharks (Lamnidae). The common name refers to the conspicuously light colored belly of the animals. The species occurs almost worldwide and prefers to colonize temperate coastal waters. As the largest species of shark that does not feed on plankton , the great white shark is the largest predatory fish ; it can also be dangerous to people. It is rare in the entire distribution area; Today it is considered to be threatened in the stock due to bycatch in commercial fisheries and targeted hunting for trophies .

features

The great white shark is one of the largest shark species with an average length of around four meters and a maximum length of over seven meters . The females are significantly larger than the males, which reach a maximum length of about five meters. The weight can be up to three and a half tons. The body is compact, spindle-shaped with a conical, blunt-ended snout. The back and flanks are light gray to brownish, more rarely bluish to almost black and occasionally have a coppery sheen. The ventral side is white and sharply delineated from the flank color in an irregular line.

The head of a great white shark with the typical black eyes, the sharp border to the white belly and the long gill slits
The second row of teeth on a great white shark is easy to see

The pectoral fins mostly have black tips, especially on the underside; the body usually has a dark spot behind its base. The males have clasps on their pelvic fins that are a few centimeters long in young animals, up to 50 cm in length in sexually mature animals and thus around 10 percent of the total body length and are stiffened by stored calcium carbonate . The first dorsal fin is large and sickle-shaped and begins at the level of the rear end of the sickle-shaped pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin begins in front of the anal fin , both are small. All fins are stingless. An interdorsal ridge is not formed. The tail is clearly keeled laterally and has a pit-like notch in front of the caudal fin on the top and bottom. The caudal fin is crescent-shaped, with the lower lobe almost as large as the upper.

The head has no barbels or sensory pits. The nostrils are small. The small eyes are completely black so the pupil cannot be clearly seen. The mouth is wide and long with strong jaws and has no labial folds . The teeth are wide, triangular, with a sawn edge and, like all sharks, stand in a revolver denture , so they are reproduced throughout their life. The active row of teeth forms a closed cutting edge, with the teeth becoming larger towards the tip of the snout. In the upper jaw there are 23 to 28 teeth next to each other, in the lower jaw 20 to 26, which are closer together. The five gill openings are long slits in front of the pectoral fins.

Swimming style and physiology

Great white shark near Guadalupe

Great white sharks are adapted to swimming in a thunniform manner , which means that the tail fin serves as the main propulsion system, while the torso hardly vibrates. This allows both slow, persistent swimming with high energy efficiency and very fast swimming over shorter distances. Adaptations to this swimming style are the large first dorsal fin reinforced by collagen fibers , which stabilize the animal's position in the water, as well as the stiffening of the caudal fin and the tail stalk, which is also brought about by collagen fibers, which allow the tail to swing strongly and flexibly to generate forward thrust. Muscles in the lower lobe of the caudal fin could serve to change the hydrostatic pressure in the fin and thus adapt its properties to slow or fast swimming. Measurements on marked animals indicated an average speed of just over three kilometers per hour and daily distances of around 80 kilometers. Great white sharks are also capable of sudden accelerations and complicated maneuvers, including jumping completely out of the water.

Like many other mackerel sharks, great white sharks have blood vessel networks (" retia mirabilia "), which serve as heat exchangers for thermoregulation and retain the heat generated by muscle movement inside the body. The brain , eyes, muscles and intestines are warmed up by around three to five degrees and the stomach by up to fifteen degrees above the ambient temperature. The partial endothermia achieved in this way probably serves to increase the efficiency of the organs mentioned, which could be particularly advantageous when hunting warm-blooded prey.

Occurrence

Distribution of the great white shark, main occurrence dark blue

Great white sharks are found almost worldwide in all oceans and immigrated in the Mediterranean . The species is absent in the cold areas around the Arctic and Antarctic, as well as in the Black Sea and the Baltic Sea . It is most commonly seen in coastal waters of the temperate zone in the western North Atlantic , the Mediterranean, off the southern coasts of Africa and Australia, and in the eastern North Pacific . The species is widespread in the tropics , but it is less common. The great white shark is a rather rare species of fish throughout its range.

The animals colonize different habitats in almost all climate zones. They often stay near the coast and also penetrate relatively shallow water as well as bays, lagoons and harbors, but not in brackish water or freshwater areas . In addition, they are also regularly found in front of oceanic islands, especially near seal colonies. In the marginal seas , great white sharks stay in water depths from the surface to the bottom, but rarely penetrate the continental slopes . The greatest water depth from which a great white shark was caught was 1,280 meters. The animals spend around 90 percent of their time either within about 5 meters below the surface of the water or at depths of 300 to 500 meters, while they rarely stay in medium water depths.

In the case of great white sharks equipped with transmitters, isolated deep dives of over 1000 meters have been detected in the waters around New Zealand .

Genetic analyzes indicate that the females tend to be more faithful to their location, while mainly the males undertake migrations , some of them thousands of kilometers , and thus ensure that the populations are mixed .

Way of life

Social behavior

Great White Shark examining a diving cage for shark viewing

Great white sharks usually appear singly or in pairs, but occasionally come together in larger groups of ten or more animals, whereby there is evidence of season and temperature dependencies of such gatherings. The social behavior is little studied, but it seems as complex as in better species studied to be. Communication takes place primarily through swimming movements, as sharks have little other means of giving signals due to their inability to produce sound and their relatively rigid body shape. Parallel swimming of two animals, mutual circling, swimming towards each other and evasive, as well as swimming with a hump-like back and pectoral fins were observed. As with other sharks, the latter could be part of a threatening behavior towards conspecifics. Threatening behavior was also described as striking the water surface with the tail, opening the mouth and pushing the jaw forward. Both of these are often shown while eating towards other conspecifics, but also towards people and objects such as boats. These behaviors could play a role in establishing a hierarchy that is likely to be followed when eating together. The animals are generally curious and can often be seen examining human activity or, often around boats, sticking their heads out of the water.

Food and hunting

Great white shark snapping at bait

Great white sharks are predators who obtain a large part of their food through active hunting, but also opportunistically accept carrion . The composition of the food varies greatly depending on the availability of prey. Attacked prey are almost always smaller than the attacking shark. The invertebrates captured are octopus , other mollusks and large crustaceans . The spectrum of bony fish eaten by great white sharks includes both bottom-dwelling and free-water species, from small schooling fish to tuna and swordfish . Groups of great white sharks gather in areas where schools of fish are concentrated. Finally, cartilaginous fish such as sharks, rays and chimeras are also eaten. Cannibalism apparently seldom or never occurs, although humans captured or wounded conspecifics are occasionally attacked. Sea turtles make up a small proportion of the prey. Seabirds are sometimes eaten, but often only caught and released or even killed without being devoured. Above all, great white sharks over three meters in length also hunt marine mammals , from sea ​​otters and smaller seals to elephant seals and small toothed whales to gray whale calves . In some individuals, seals seem to make up a large part of the prey, although other, often smaller prey animals are usually found in the stomachs of captured animals. On occasion, the carcasses of dead large whales can also make up a significant portion of the diet.

Head of a great white shark with partially open mouth and clearly visible teeth

The eyes of the great white shark have a well-developed fovea centralis with cones , so that the animals have good visual acuity and color vision . It is therefore assumed that they hunt primarily during the day and select their prey by sight. Investigations on animals equipped with ultrasound transmitters have shown that when searching for prey they usually swim slowly for a long time near the water surface or at the bottom, whereby their two-part coloration probably serves as camouflage both when viewed from above and below ( counter-shading ). The animals hunt individually and without any obvious hunting territories. Possible attack movements were mostly observed during the day, but in some cases also at night. The intervals between the hunts can be several days. Calculations indicate that a large seal could supply an animal's energy needs for up to a month and a half.

Smaller prey animals are swallowed whole, while larger ones are killed by a bite or wounded so badly that they bleed to death unable to escape or die of shock . Computer simulations of the biomechanics of the bite indicate that a great white shark weighing 200 to 400 kg could develop a bite force of around 3,000 to 5,000 Newtons and an animal weighing 3.5 tons could develop a bite force of over 18,000 Newtons. This corresponds to the weight of a mass of 300 to 500 kg or 1.8 tons and would be the highest bite force of all animals today.

Jump out of the water during the attack on prey near Gansbaai in South Africa

The best studied are attacks on seals. In most cases, animals swimming near the surface of the water are attacked from below, whereby the momentum during the attack often partially or completely lifts the shark out of the water. If the shark misses the prey on the first attack, it will pursue it on the surface of the water. The probability of a successful hunt decreases significantly over time. After a bite, it is often necessary to wait until the prey is weakened. The killing usually happens after approaching from behind by a powerful, sideways bite, in which the shark turns its eyes backwards in the base - possibly to protect them from injury. The prey is usually eaten on the spot on the surface of the water, but especially when other sharks are present, it is also transported away, eaten in the depths or abandoned.

The only known natural enemy of adult great white sharks is the killer whale ( Orcinus orca ).

Reproduction and development

Male great white shark in the Monterey Bay Aquarium

Female great white sharks reach reproductive capacity at an age of 12 to 14 years and with a length of four to five meters, males between 9 and 10 years and three and a half to four meters in length. Almost nothing is known about mating behavior ; However, slight bite marks on the pectoral fins found in adult females indicate that the males cling to the females when mating, as has been observed in other shark species. The 2 to 14 young animals hatch from the eggs in the womb ( ovoviviparia ) and feed on the eggs produced by the mother ( oophagia ) before birth . The gestation period is unknown but is estimated to be a year or more. The birth takes place in warm temperate coastal areas. At this point the young animals are 120 to 150 cm long and weigh 26 to 32 kg, but initially lose weight to around half their birth weight while learning to hunt. The maximum age of the males is at least 73 years, females can be at least 40 years old. This makes the great white sharks one of the longest living cartilaginous fish.

Systematics and evolution

Size comparison of a fossil megalodon tooth with teeth of a great white shark

The great white shark was first scientifically described by Carl von Linné in 1758 as Squalus carcharias , but later placed in the monotypical genus Carcharodon by Smith . This is usually put together with the Mako sharks ( Isurus ) and the Herring Sharks ( Lamna ) in the family of Mackerel Sharks (Lamnidae). However, some authors differentiate Carcharodon from these two genera and define for it the own family of Carcharodontidae. Molecular biological studies indicate that the great white shark is more closely related to the maco sharks than to the porbeagle sharks, and that the two genera separated in the Paleocene or Eocene . The great white shark's chromosome set consists of 41 pairs (2n = 82).

Since the cartilage skeletons of sharks seldom completely petrify, the genus Carcharodon is known to be fossilized mainly from dental finds, the oldest of which date from the middle Paleocene, about 60 million years ago. In the genus that was originally probably fish-eating, there was an increasing specialization in marine mammals and a split into two lines. A line with conspicuously large teeth (English "megatooth sharks") inhabited mainly warmer waters and produced the last species, the up to 17 meter long megalodon ( Otodus megalodon or Carcharocles megalodon ). Today's great white shark probably descends from the line with smaller teeth. The oldest fossil teeth associated with this were found in layers of the Upper Miocene in California, some eleven million years old .

Some authors divide the Carcharodon -like fossil species into several genera. The discovery of a four million year old Carachodon fossil in Peru , of which a large part of the skeleton has been preserved, indicates that the lineage of the great white shark is more closely related to the mako sharks than to the “megatooth sharks” and both Lines developed their extraordinary size independently of one another .

In February 2019, researchers at Nova Southeastern University fully deciphered the genetic makeup of the great white shark. The size of the genome is 4.63 Gbp (giga base pairs), around one and a half times larger than that of humans. The researchers hope to use the genetic material to find out more about genetic defense mechanisms, from which cancer research in particular should benefit.

Great white shark and human

Threat and protection

Adult great white sharks have few natural enemies, although they are occasionally attacked as food competitors by other large species of shark and killer whales . Due to their rarity, the species is not targeted commercially fished , but often as bycatch caught. The meat can be eaten fresh, salted, or smoked, but severe poisoning can occur, probably due to the high levels of trimethylamine oxide and mercury in the tissues. The fins are used in Asia for shark fin soup and in traditional medicine. The skin can be made into leather , and oil can be extracted from the liver . The species is hunted by sport fishermen because of its size. Although the captured animals are mostly released again today, their condition is often poor, so that their future fate is often uncertain. There is also targeted hunting for trophies . Teeth, dentures and stuffed animals, which are traded for several thousand dollars, serve as such. The shark protection measures on bathing beaches, which occasionally include targeted killing, but also shark protection nets in which the animals can get caught and perish, pose a further threat.

The great white shark is considered endangered due to its rarity, late sexual maturity and the low number of offspring. Exact population figures are not known, estimates assume that the North Atlantic population decreased by 59 to 89 percent between 1986 and 2000. Strict protection regulations for the species exist in South Africa , Namibia , Florida and California , but local protection regulations are considered to be ineffective because of the far-reaching migrations undertaken by the animals. In the Red List of Threatened Species of IUCN will listed as "vulnerable" (endangered), a classification is (high risk) as "endangered" under consideration. In the Washington Convention on the Protection of Species , it is listed in Appendix II. Some scientists believe that the species is already biologically extinct in at least some regions; H. the existing populations are no longer able to recover.

After five fatal shark attacks within a year, the government of Western Australia announced in September 2012 that it would allow the hunting and emergency slaughter of great white sharks on the state's coast. The measure was criticized by conservationists as a "Hollywood reaction".

Attacks on people

Report of the 1916 New Jersey shark attacks in the Philadelphia Inquirer

Because of its size, strength and aggressiveness of the great white shark is considered to be dangerous to humans and, according to several studies, the most commonly responsible for attacks on human nature. However, some authors assume that this often other species such as the bull shark with the better-known White Be mistaken for shark. Worldwide, there are an average of three to seven unprovoked attacks per year, of which around 20 percent are fatal. Most of the attacks occur off the coasts of California, South Africa, South Australia and Japan. Occasionally, boats are attacked by bites or rams and sometimes sunk. Surfers and swimmers in dark clothing are most frequently attacked on the surface of the water, often near banks or at river mouths and near seal colonies. The shark usually attacks surprisingly from below or behind with a single bite, which can lead to serious injuries. The victim is rarely further attacked or eaten, so that rescue, especially with the help of accompanying people, is usually possible. For these reasons, it is believed that mistaking humans for seals triggered the attacks. However, great white sharks often observe swimmers and divers without attacking, and attacks often consist of light grasping and holding on as opposed to powerful killing bites aimed at prey. The behavior towards people was therefore also interpreted as an investigation out of curiosity or agonistic behavior .

Cultural reception

The image of the shark in Western society was significantly influenced by the shark attacks on the New Jersey coast (1916) , which may have been due to a young female great white shark. These incidents also inspired the novel The Jaws ( Jaws : Kiefer, Maul) by Peter Benchley , which was filmed in 1975 by Steven Spielberg under the same name . The shark appears in the book as a symbol of the inhuman nature, which in conflict also arouses aggression in humans. In this form, the shark replaces the whale traditionally portrayed in this role, as it appears in Herman Melville's novel Moby Dick . In the film adaptation in particular, the great white shark becomes the archetype of the animal film monster that attacks and kills people from a superior position. The film triggered increased fear of sharks in viewers, which led to targeted shark kills. But it also aroused the desire among adventurers to compete with the supposed monster. In contrast to the western view, sharks are held in high regard by the peoples of the Pacific region ; in the Fiji Islands , they serve as tribal symbols. In recent years, environmental organizations and individuals have endeavored to improve the Western image of sharks in general and the great white shark in particular. This includes Peter Benchley, who after further research wrote several books on shark and marine conservation and regretted the consequences of Jaws :

“[T] he shark in an updated Jaws could not be the villain; it would have to be written as the victim, for, worldwide, sharks are much more the oppressed than the oppressors. "

"In an updated Jaws , the shark could not be the villain, it would have to be described as the victim, because worldwide sharks are much more often the oppressed than the oppressor."

Great white sharks as an attraction

Chumming - flesh and blood attracted sharks
Cage diving with great white sharks at Gansbaai in South Africa (2015)

The popularity of the great white shark also creates a great show value for the animals. Great white shark attacks have often received media attention to this day. In addition, the animals are popular objects for animal filmmakers , and their observation in the wild by divers and snorkelers has been marketed for tourism for several years, especially in Australia and Cape Town / South Africa . Feeding and luring sharks with meat and blood brought into the water (chumming) has been banned in California since 1994, as it was feared that this could endanger people and sharks.

Great white sharks kept in aquariums usually die after a few days as a result of the trauma they suffered while they were caught and refused to eat. In the Monterey Bay Aquarium , young great white sharks were kept several times, which were released again after up to 198 days in the aquarium with transmitters. The Monterey Bay Aquarium sees the display of great white sharks and the presentation of its research projects as a contribution to demythizing the animals and promoting an understanding of the species.

supporting documents

literature

  • A. Peter Klimley, David G. Ainley (Eds.): Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias . Academic Press, San Diego 1998, ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7 .

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Henry F. Mollet, Gregor M. Cailliet, A. Peter Klimley, David A. Ebert, Antonio D. Testi, Leonard JV Compagno: A review of length validation methods and protocols to measure large white sharks . In: A. Peter Klimley, David G. Ainley (Eds.): Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias . Academic Press, San Diego 1998, ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7 , pp. 91-110 .
  2. ↑ Craig R. McClain et al .: Sizing Ocean Giants: Patterns of Intraspecific Size Variation in Marine Megafauna . In: PeerJ. Volume 3, 2015, doi: 10.7717 / peerj.715 .
  3. ^ Douglas H. Adams, Michael E. Mitchell, Glenn R. Parsons: Seasonal Occurrence of the White Shark, Carcharodon carcharias, in Waters off the Florida West Coast, with Notes on its Life History . In: Marine Fisheries Reviews . tape 56 , no. 4 , 1994, pp. 24–28 (English, full text [PDF; 3.4 MB ]).
  4. ↑ a b c L. JV Compagno, MA Marks, IK Fergusson: Threatened fishes of the world: Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lamnidae) . In: Environmental Biology of Fishes . tape 50 , no. 1 , 1997, p. 61–62 , doi : 10.1023 / A: 1007308406137 (English, full text [PDF; 60 kB ]).
  5. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l L. JV Compagno: Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalog of shark species known to date (=  FAO Species Catalog for Fishery Purposes . Volume 2 , no. 1 ). tape 2 : Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes) . FAO , Rome 2001, ISBN 92-5104543-7 , pp. 98–107 ( full text [PDF; 295 kB ]).
  6. Jump up ↑ Theagarten Lingham Soliar: Caudal Fin in the White Shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Lamnidae): A Dynamic Propeller for Fast, Efficient Swimming . In: Journal of Morphology . tape 264 , 2005, pp. 233-252 , doi : 10.1002 / jmor.10328 (English).
  7. ↑ Kenneth J. Goldman, Scot D. Anderson, John E. McCosker, A. Peter Klimley: Temperature, swimming depth and movement of a white shark at the South Farallon Islands, California . In: A. Peter Klimley, David G. Ainley (Eds.): Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias . Academic Press, San Diego 1998, ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7 , pp. 111-120 .
  8. ↑ Navi error brought Great White Shark to the Mediterranean. Report at Spektrum.de from November 17, 2010.
  9. ↑ C. Gubili, R. Bilgin, E. Kalkan, S. Ü. Karhan, CS Jones, DW Sims, H. Kabasakal, AP Martin and LR Noble: Antipodean white sharks on a Mediterranean walkabout? Historical dispersal leads to genetic discontinuity and an endangered anomalous population. In: Proc. R. Soc. November 17, 2010, doi: 10.1098 / rspb.2010.1856 .
  10. ^ The submerged great white sharks of the Mediterranean derstandard.at, accessed on July 14, 2017
  11. ^ Andre M. Boustany, Scott F. Davis, Peter Pyle, Scot D. Anderson, Burney J. Le Boeuf, Barbara A. Block: Expanded niche for white sharks . In: Nature . tape 415 , 2002, pp. 35-36 , doi : 10.1038 / 415035b (English).
  12. ↑ Shark dives 1200 meters deep. Report to T-Online Nachrichten of March 31, 2010.
  13. ↑ Amanda T. Pardini, Catherine S. Jones, Leslie R. Noble, Brian Kreiser, Hamish Malcolm, Barry D. Bruce, John D. Stevens, Geremy Cliff, Michael C. Scholl, Malcolm Francis, Clinton AJ Duffy, Andrew P. Martin: Sex-biased dispersal of great white sharks . In: Nature . tape 412 , 2001, p. 139–140 , doi : 10.1038 / 35084125 (English, full text [PDF; 121 kB ]).
  14. ↑ A. Peter Klimley, Peter Pyle, Scot D. Anderson: tail slap and breach: agonistic displays among white sharks? In: A. Peter Klimley, David G. Ainley (Eds.): Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias . Academic Press, San Diego 1998, ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7 , pp. 241-255 .
  15. ↑ George W. Barlow: Behavior of the white shark: An emerging picture . In: A. Peter Klimley, David G. Ainley (Eds.): Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias . Academic Press, San Diego 1998, ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7 , pp. 257-261 .
  16. ↑ A. Peter Klimley, Burney J. LeBoeuf, Kelly M. Cantara, John E. Richert, Scott F. Davis, Sean Van Sommeran, John T. Kelly: The hunting strategy of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) near a seal colony . In: Marine Biology . tape 138 , 2001, p. 617–636 , doi : 10.1007 / s002270000489 (English, full text at researchgate.net ).
  17. ↑ S. Wroe, DR Huber, M. Lowry, C. McHenry, K. Moreno, P. Clausen, TL Ferrara, E. Cunningham, MN Dean, AP Summers: Three-dimensional computer analysis of white shark jaw mechanics: how hard can a great white bite? In: Journal of Zoology . tape 276 , 2008, p. 336–342 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1469-7998.2008.00494.x (English, full text [PDF; 916 kB ]).
  18. ^ R. Aidan Martin, Neil Hammerschlag, Ralph S. Collier, Chris Fallows: Predatory behavior of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at Seal Island, South Africa . In: Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom . tape 85 , 2005, pp. 1121–1135 (English, full text [PDF; 2.1 MB ]).
  19. ↑ Malcolm P. Francis: Observations on a pregnant white shark eith a review on reproductive biology . In: A. Peter Klimley, David G. Ainley (Eds.): Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias . Academic Press, San Diego 1998, ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7 , pp. 157-173 .
  20. ↑ Great white sharks are methusalems of the seas: The sea predators are much older than previously thought. In: scinexx.de. Retrieved July 16, 2018 .
  21. ^ Li Ling Hamady, Lisa J. Natanson, Gregory B. Skomal, Simon R. Thorrold. Vertebral Bomb Radiocarbon Suggests Extreme Longevity in White Sharks. In: PLoS ONE . Volume 9, No. 1, 2014, e84006, doi: 10.1371 / journal.pone.0084006 .
  22. ↑ Andrew P. Martin: Systematics of the Lamnidae and the origination time of Carcharodon carcharias inferred from the comparative analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences . In: A. Peter Klimley, David G. Ainley (Eds.): Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias . Academic Press, San Diego 1998, ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7 , pp. 49-53 .
  23. ↑ a b Great White Shark on Fishbase.org (English)
  24. ↑ Shelton P. Applegate, Luis Espinosa-Arrubarrena: The fossil history of Carcharodon and its possible ancestor Cretolamna: A study in tooth identification . In: A. Peter Klimley, David G. Ainley (Eds.): Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias . Academic Press, San Diego 1998, ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7 , pp. 19-36 .
  25. ^ Robert W. Purdy: Paleoecology of fossil white sharks . In: A. Peter Klimley, David G. Ainley (Eds.): Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias . Academic Press, San Diego 1998, ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7 , pp. 67-78 .
  26. ↑ DJ Ehret, G. Hubbell, BJ MacFadden: Exceptional preservation of the white shark Carcharodon (Lamniformes, Lamnidae) from the early Pliocene of Peru . In: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology . tape 29 , no. 1 , 2009, doi : 10.1671 / 039.029.0113 (English, full text [PDF; 1.1 MB ]).
  27. ↑ Great White Shark Genome decoded nova.edu, Retrieved February 19, 2019
  28. ↑ White shark genome reveals ancient elasmobranch adaptations associated with wound healing and the maintenance of genome stability pnas.org, Retrieved February 19, 2019
  29. Jump up ↑ Yiu H. Hui, David Kitts, Peggy S. Stanfield: Foodborne Disease Handbook: Volume 4: Seafood and Environmental Toxins . Marcel Dekker, New York 2001, ISBN 978-0-8247-0344-8 .
  30. ↑ a b Carcharodon carcharias in the endangered Red List species the IUCN 2006. Posted by Fergusson et al , 2000. Accessed May 8, 2006. (Engl.)
  31. ↑ a b Background information: Great White Shark from the World Wide Fund For Nature
  32. ^ Recovery potential assessment report on white sharks in atlantic Canada. (PDF; 58 kB) Fisheries and Oceans Canada, February 2007, accessed on July 16, 2018 (English).
  33. ↑ Appendices to the agreement at www.cites.org (eng.)
  34. ↑ Alessandro de Maddalena, Harald Bänsch: Sharks in the Mediterranean . Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-440-10458-3 .
  35. ^ After shark attacks in Australia: Revenge on the Great White Shark at sueddeutsche.de, September 27, 2012 (accessed September 27, 2012).
  36. ↑ a b John E. McCoscker, Robert N. Lea: White shark attacks upon humans in California and Oregon, 1993-2003 . In: Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences . tape 57 , no. 17 , 2006, p. 479–501 (English, full text [PDF; 240 kB ]).
  37. ^ E. Ritter, M. Levine: Use of forensic analysis to better understand shark attack behavior . In: The Journal of Forensic Odonto-Stomatology . tape 22 , no. 2 , 2004, p. 40–46 (English, full text at researchgate.net ).
  38. ↑ Joseph Andriano: Immortal monster: the mythological evolution of the fantastic beast in modern fiction and film . Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport 1999, ISBN 978-0-313-30667-9 .
  39. ↑ Horst Stern: Film - The misunderstood un-animal . In: Der Spiegel . No. 51 , 1975, p. 118-120 ( full text ).
  40. ↑ Peter benchley, Ocean in Peril ( Memento of 28 March 2009 at the Internet Archive ) on the Ocean Planet website of the Smithsonian Institution .
  41. ↑ Monterey Bay Aquarium - White Shark Research Project Website of the Monterey Bay Aquarium on the Great White Shark ( Memento of August 28, 2008 in the Internet Archive ).

Web links

Commons : Great White Shark  album with pictures, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Great White Shark  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on March 31, 2009 in this version .