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{{short description|Genus of American bamboo, often referred to in American English as cane}}
{{Short description|Genus of American bamboo, often referred to in American English as cane}}

{{automatic taxobox
{{automatic taxobox
|image = Arundinaria tecta 66420695.jpg
|image = Arundinaria tecta 66420695.jpg
|image_caption = ''[[Arundinaria tecta]]''<br>northern Florida in March 2003
|image_caption = ''[[Arundinaria tecta]]''<br />northern Florida in March 2003
|display_parents = 3
|display_parents = 3
|taxon = Arundinaria
|taxon = Arundinaria
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}}
}}


'''''Arundinaria''''' is a [[genus]] of [[bamboo]] in the [[Poaceae|grass family]] the members of which are referred to generally as '''cane'''.<ref>[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/404836#page/96/mode/1up Michaux, André. 1803. Flora Boreali-Americana 1: 73–74] in Latin</ref><ref>[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40020384 Tropicos, ''Arundinaria'' Michx.]</ref> ''Arundinaria'' is the only bamboo native to North America, with a native range from [[Maryland]] south to [[Florida]] and west to the southern [[Ohio Valley]] and [[Texas]].<ref>[http://www.herbarium.usu.edu/webmanual/ Grass Manual on the Web, Utah State University] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128035939/http://www.herbarium.usu.edu/webmanual/ |date=January 28, 2015 }}</ref><ref>[http://bonap.net/NAPA/TaxonMaps/Genus/County/Arundinaria Biota of North America Program 2013 county distribution maps]</ref>
'''''Arundinaria''''' is a [[genus]] of [[bamboo]] in the [[Poaceae|grass family]] the members of which are referred to generally as '''cane'''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Michaux|first=André|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7567|title=Flora boreali-americana :sistens caracteres plantarum quas in America septentrionali collegit et detexit Andreas Michaux|date=1803|publisher=apud fratres Levrault|volume=1|location=Parisiis et Argentorati}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Tropicos|url=https://www.tropicos.org/Name/40020384|access-date=2022-12-24|website=www.tropicos.org}}</ref> ''Arundinaria'' is the only bamboo native to North America, with a native range from [[Maryland]] south to [[Florida]] and west to the southern [[Ohio Valley]] and [[Texas]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=University|first=Utah State|title=Herbarium|url=https://www.usu.edu/herbarium/index|access-date=2022-12-24|website=www.usu.edu|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2013 BONAP North American Plant Atlas. TaxonMaps|url=http://bonap.net/NAPA/TaxonMaps/Genus/County/Arundinaria|access-date=2022-12-24|website=bonap.net}}</ref>
Within this region Arundinaria canes are found from the [[Coastal Plain]] to medium elevations in the [[Appalachian Mountains]].
Within this region Arundinaria canes are found from the [[Coastal Plain]] to medium elevations in the [[Appalachian Mountains]].


Prior to the [[European colonization of the Americas]], cane was an important resource for [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples of the Americas]]. Early European explorers in the U.S. described vast [[monotypic habitat|monotypic]] stands of ''Arundinaria'' that were common in river [[lowland]]s and covered hundreds of thousands of [[hectare]]s. In the modern era, Arundinaria [[canebrake | canebrakes]] are small and isolated, but there has been interest in restoring them due to the cultural and ecological importance of the plant.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barret |first1=Richard |last2=Grabowski |first2=Janet |last3=Williams |first3=M.J. |title=Giant Cane and Other Native Bamboos: Establishment and Use for Conservation of Natural Resources in the Southeast |url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/plantmaterials/flpmctn13727.pdf |website=ncrs.usda.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service |access-date=27 November 2022}}</ref> Canebrakes provided land for crops, habitat for wild game, and year-round forage for livestock. The cane itself was used for construction, weapons, jewelry, medicines, fuel, and food. Canebrakes declined significantly after colonization due to clearing, farming and fire suppression.<ref name=flora/><ref name=sida/><ref name="theonefeather">{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=Anthony |title=River cane: Important Cherokee cultural staple |url=https://theonefeather.com/2012/05/22/river-cane-important-cherokee-cultural-staple/ |website=theonefeather.com |date=22 May 2012 |publisher=The Cherokee One Feather}}</ref>
Prior to the [[European colonization of the Americas]], cane was an important resource for [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]]. Early European explorers in the U.S. described vast [[monotypic habitat|monotypic]] stands of ''Arundinaria'' that were common in river [[lowland]]s and covered hundreds of thousands of [[hectare]]s. In the modern era, Arundinaria [[canebrake]]s are small and isolated, but there has been interest in restoring them due to the cultural and ecological importance of the plant.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Barret |first1=Richard |last2=Grabowski |first2=Janet |last3=Williams |first3=M.J. |title=Giant Cane and Other Native Bamboos: Establishment and Use for Conservation of Natural Resources in the Southeast |url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/plantmaterials/flpmctn13727.pdf |website=ncrs.usda.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service |access-date=27 November 2022}}</ref> Canebrakes provided land for crops, habitat for wild game, and year-round forage for livestock. The cane itself was used for construction, weapons, jewelry, medicines, fuel, and food. Canebrakes declined significantly after colonization due to clearing, farming and fire suppression.<ref name=flora /><ref name=sida /><ref name="theonefeather">{{Cite web |last1=Brown |first1=Anthony |title=River cane: Important Cherokee cultural staple |url=https://theonefeather.com/2012/05/22/river-cane-important-cherokee-cultural-staple/ |website=theonefeather.com |date=22 May 2012 |publisher=The Cherokee One Feather}}</ref>


[[File:Cane P6200080 Ar.jpg|thumb|Grouping of Arundinaria gigantea at Cane Ridge Meeting House in Kentucky, USA]]
[[File:Cane P6200080 Ar.jpg|thumb|Grouping of Arundinaria gigantea at Cane Ridge Meeting House in Kentucky, USA]]


== Description ==
== Description ==
Arundinaria species have running [[rhizome]]s and have slender, woody [[Culm (botany)|culms]] that reach heights from {{convert|0.5|to|8|m|ft}}. ''Arundinaria'' produce seeds only rarely and usually reproduce vegetatively, forming large clonal [[Genet (biology)|genet]]s. When seed production does occur, the colony usually dies afterwards, possibly because the dense thickets of a mature canebrake would otherwise prevent seedling establishment. Only two flowering events are known for A. appalachiana.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Campbell |first1=Julian |title=Growth of Cane (Arundinaria sensu stricto), the Mysterious Native Bamboo of North America |url=https://bluegrasswoodland.com/uploads/Arundinaria__Growth_of_Cane_.pdf |website=bluegrasswoodland.com}}</ref> A colony of cane will expand rapidly using asexual reproduction following disturbances, particularly fire, which triggers new shoots to immediately sprout from the underground rhizomes after the aboveground part of the plant has burned. These shoots grow quickly, up to 1.5 inches per day.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cockman |first1=Crystal |title=The loss of the great canebrakes |url=https://ui.charlotte.edu/story/loss-great-canebrakes |website=ui.charlotte.edu |publisher=UNC Charlotte Urban Institute}}</ref> Among the distinctive features of the canes is a fan-like cluster of leaves at the top of new stems called a topknot, so-called because of its resemblance to [[Topknot (disambiguation)|topknot hairstyles]].<ref name=flora/><ref name=sida/>
Arundinaria species have running [[rhizome]]s and have slender, woody [[Culm (botany)|culms]] that reach heights from {{convert|0.5|to|8|m|ft}}. ''Arundinaria'' produce seeds only rarely and usually reproduce vegetatively, forming large clonal [[Genet (biology)|genets]]. When seed production does occur, the colony usually dies afterwards, possibly because the dense thickets of a mature canebrake would otherwise prevent seedling establishment. Only two flowering events are known for A. appalachiana.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Campbell |first1=Julian |title=Growth of Cane (Arundinaria sensu stricto), the Mysterious Native Bamboo of North America |url=https://bluegrasswoodland.com/uploads/Arundinaria__Growth_of_Cane_.pdf |website=bluegrasswoodland.com}}</ref> A colony of cane will expand rapidly using asexual reproduction following disturbances, particularly fire, which triggers new shoots to immediately sprout from the underground rhizomes after the aboveground part of the plant has burned. These shoots grow quickly, up to 1.5 inches per day.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cockman |first1=Crystal |title=The loss of the great canebrakes |url=https://ui.charlotte.edu/story/loss-great-canebrakes |website=ui.charlotte.edu |publisher=UNC Charlotte Urban Institute}}</ref> Among the distinctive features of the canes is a fan-like cluster of leaves at the top of new stems called a topknot, so-called because of its resemblance to [[Topknot (disambiguation)|topknot hairstyles]].<ref name=flora /><ref name=sida />


==Accepted species==
== Accepted species ==
There are currently three recognized species of the genus ''Arundinaria'' accepted by the [[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]] as of March 2016. For each species listed below, binomial name is followed by [[Author citation (botany)|author citation]].<ref>{{WCSP|accessdate=9 March 2016}}</ref>
There are currently three recognized species of the genus ''Arundinaria'' accepted by the [[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]] as of March 2016. For each species listed below, binomial name is followed by [[Author citation (botany)|author citation]].<ref>{{WCSP|accessdate=9 March 2016}}</ref>
{|
{|
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[[File:Arundinaria tecta 51866294.jpg|thumb|'Topknot' at the top of an Arundinaria tecta 'switch cane' culm]]
[[File:Arundinaria tecta 51866294.jpg|thumb|'Topknot' at the top of an Arundinaria tecta 'switch cane' culm]]
[[File:Arundinaria gigantea 115419560.jpg|thumb|Dried Arundinaria 'topknot' from the top of an Arundinaria gigantea 'giant river cane' culm]]
[[File:Arundinaria gigantea 115419560.jpg|thumb|Dried Arundinaria 'topknot' from the top of an Arundinaria gigantea 'giant river cane' culm]]

[[File:Arundinaria appalachiana 147003028.jpg|thumb|Arundinaria appalachiana along the Little Tennessee River]]
[[File:Arundinaria appalachiana 147003028.jpg|thumb|Arundinaria appalachiana along the Little Tennessee River]]


== Conservation ==
== Conservation ==
The organization [[Revitalization of Traditional Cherokee Artisan Resources]], using funding from the [[Cherokee Preservation Foundation]], has helped establish restoration sites for [[Arundinaria gigantea]].<ref>{{cite web |title=A New Day for Rivercane |url=https://conservingcarolina.org/rivercane-restoration/ |website=conservingcarolina.org |publisher=Conserving Carolina}}</ref>
The organization [[Revitalization of Traditional Cherokee Artisan Resources]], using funding from the [[Cherokee Preservation Foundation]], has helped establish restoration sites for [[Arundinaria gigantea]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=A New Day for Rivercane |url=https://conservingcarolina.org/rivercane-restoration/ |website=conservingcarolina.org |date=23 June 2021 |publisher=Conserving Carolina}}</ref>


== Use ==
== Use ==
[[Ethnobotany|Ethnobotanists]] consider cane to have been extremely important to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]]s in the [[Southeastern Woodlands]] before [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonisation]]. The plant was used to make structures, arrow shafts, weapons, fishing equipment, jewelry, baskets, musical instruments, furniture, boats, pipe stems, and medicines.<ref name=platt>{{Citation| last1=Platt| first1=Steven G.| last2=Brantley| first2=Christopher G.| last3=Rainwater| first3=Thomas R.| title=Native American ethnobotany of cane (''Arundinaria'' spp.) in the southeastern United States: a review| journal=Castanea|date=September 2009| volume=74| issue=3| pages=271–285| doi=10.2179/08-023R2.1| s2cid=85780027}}</ref> ''Arundinaria gigantea'', or river cane, has historically been used to construct [[Native American flute]]s, particularly among tribes of the [[Eastern Woodlands]]. The [[Atakapa]], [[Muscogee Creek]], Chickasaw, [[Choctaw]], [[Cherokee]], and other Southeastern tribes have traditionally used this material for mat and [[basket weaving]],<ref>{{citation| last=Mason| first=Otis T.| title=Basket-Work of the North American Aborigines| location=Washington| publisher=Government Printing Office| year=1890}}</ref> and the [[Chitimacha]] and [[Eastern Band Cherokee]] still widely weave with rivercane today, though basket makers have started making smaller baskets in order to use less material and preserve the increasingly rare river cane.<ref>{{cite web |title=A New Day for Rivercane |url=https://conservingcarolina.org/rivercane-restoration/ |website=conservingcarolina.org |publisher=Conserving Carolina}}</ref> Bean poles made from dried canes can last for several years if properly stored when not in use.
[[Ethnobotany|Ethnobotanists]] consider cane to have been extremely important to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] in the [[Southeastern Woodlands]] before [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonisation]]. The plant was used to make structures, arrow shafts, weapons, fishing equipment, jewelry, baskets, musical instruments, furniture, boats, pipe stems, and medicines.<ref name=platt>{{Citation| last1=Platt| first1=Steven G.| last2=Brantley| first2=Christopher G.| last3=Rainwater| first3=Thomas R.| title=Native American ethnobotany of cane (''Arundinaria'' spp.) in the southeastern United States: a review| journal=Castanea|date=September 2009| volume=74| issue=3| pages=271–285| doi=10.2179/08-023R2.1| s2cid=85780027}}</ref> ''Arundinaria gigantea'', or river cane, has historically been used to construct [[Native American flute]]s, particularly among tribes of the [[Eastern Woodlands]]. The [[Atakapa]], [[Muscogee Creek]], Chickasaw, [[Choctaw]], [[Cherokee]], and other Southeastern tribes have traditionally used this material for mat and [[basket weaving]],<ref>{{Citation| last=Mason| first=Otis T.| title=Basket-Work of the North American Aborigines| location=Washington| publisher=Government Printing Office| year=1890}}</ref> and the [[Chitimacha]] and [[Eastern Band Cherokee]] still widely weave with rivercane today, though basket makers have started making smaller baskets in order to use less material and preserve the increasingly rare river cane.<ref name="auto" /> Bean poles made from dried canes can last for several years if properly stored when not in use.


Food uses include flour, cereal, and even "asparagus" of young shoots; however, caution should be used whenever foraging for cane seeds, as the extremely toxic fungus [[Ergot]] (''[[Claviceps]]'' spp.) can colonize its seeds as well as those of the common cereals. Ergot-infected plants will have pink or purplish blotches or growths about the size of a seed or several times larger.<ref>Peterson, Lee. ''A Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants of Eastern and Central North America.'' New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Page 228. Accessed the sixth of September, 2010. {{ISBN|0-395-20445-3}}.</ref>
Food uses include flour, cereal, and even "asparagus" of young shoots; however, caution should be used whenever foraging for cane seeds, as the extremely toxic fungus [[Ergot]] (''[[Claviceps]]'' spp.) can colonize its seeds as well as those of the common cereals. Ergot-infected plants will have pink or purplish blotches or growths about the size of a seed or several times larger.<ref>Peterson, Lee. ''A Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants of Eastern and Central North America.'' New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Page 228. Accessed the sixth of September, 2010. {{ISBN|0-395-20445-3}}.</ref>
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Medicinally, the Choctaw use the roots for their painkilling properties.
Medicinally, the Choctaw use the roots for their painkilling properties.


==Systematics==
== Systematics ==
Two of the three species currently placed in the genus, ''[[Arundinaria gigantea]]'' and ''[[Arundinaria tecta]]'', were first described scientifically by [[Thomas Walter (botanist)|Thomas Walter]] in his 1788 ''Flora Caroliniana''. Walter placed them in the grass genus ''[[Arundo]]''. In 1803, the French botanist [[André Michaux]], unaware of the flora prepared by Walter, also published a description of the canes he encountered. Michaux recognised only one species, but created a new [[monotypic]] genus for it: ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' <small>Michx.</small>.<ref name=triplett/> The name of the genus he used is derived from the same [[Latin]] word used by Walter for the plants he described; namely ''arundo'', meaning "[[Phragmites|reed]]".<ref name=flora/>
Two of the three species currently placed in the genus, ''[[Arundinaria gigantea]]'' and ''[[Arundinaria tecta]]'', were first described scientifically by [[Thomas Walter (botanist)|Thomas Walter]] in his 1788 ''Flora Caroliniana''. Walter placed them in the grass genus ''[[Arundo]]''. In 1803, the French botanist [[André Michaux]], unaware of the flora prepared by Walter, also published a description of the canes he encountered. Michaux recognised only one species, but created a new [[monotypic]] genus for it: ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' <small>Michx.</small>.<ref name=triplett /> The name of the genus he used is derived from the same [[Latin]] word used by Walter for the plants he described; namely ''arundo'', meaning "[[Phragmites|reed]]".<ref name=flora />


Despite the work done by Walter and Michaux, subsequent researchers had difficulty interpreting their [[Circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscriptions]] of species boundaries. Walter designated no [[type specimen]]s, and his [[Latin]] protologues that describe the species are vague, including features that could be any of the three species currently recognized. Michaux did designate a type specimen for the species he described, but it does not include enough of the plant to determine with confidence which species it represents, while his protologues were likewise not detailed enough to avoid ambiguity. In 2009, [[holotype|epitypes]], a new form of [[Type_(biology)#In_botany| botanical type]] allowed by the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]] in order to clarify older ambiguous types, were designated for ''Arundo gigantea'' <small>Walt.</small> and ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' <small>Michx.</small>. This allows current and future researchers to know precisely what is being discussed when the scientific names applied to these plants are used.<ref name=triplett>{{citation| last1=Triplett| first1=Jimmy K.| last2=Clark| first2=Lynn G.| title=Towards a stable nomenclature for the North American temperate bamboos: epitypification of ''Arundo gigantea'' Walt. and ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' Michx. (Poaceae)|date=September 2009| journal=Castanea| volume=74| issue=3| pages=207–212| doi=10.2179/09-010R1.1| s2cid=83921759}}</ref>
Despite the work done by Walter and Michaux, subsequent researchers had difficulty interpreting their [[Circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscriptions]] of species boundaries. Walter designated no [[type specimen]]s, and his [[Latin]] protologues that describe the species are vague, including features that could be any of the three species currently recognized. Michaux did designate a type specimen for the species he described, but it does not include enough of the plant to determine with confidence which species it represents, while his protologues were likewise not detailed enough to avoid ambiguity. In 2009, [[holotype|epitypes]], a new form of [[Type (biology)#In botany| botanical type]] allowed by the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]] in order to clarify older ambiguous types, were designated for ''Arundo gigantea'' <small>Walt.</small> and ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' <small>Michx.</small>. This allows current and future researchers to know precisely what is being discussed when the scientific names applied to these plants are used.<ref name=triplett>{{Citation| last1=Triplett| first1=Jimmy K.| last2=Clark| first2=Lynn G.| title=Towards a stable nomenclature for the North American temperate bamboos: epitypification of ''Arundo gigantea'' Walt. and ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' Michx. (Poaceae)|date=September 2009| journal=Castanea| volume=74| issue=3| pages=207–212| doi=10.2179/09-010R1.1| s2cid=83921759}}</ref>


[[File:Rivercane basket peggy brennan.jpg|thumb|200px|Rivercane basket in Noon-Day Sun pattern, by Peggy Brennan ([[Cherokee Nation]])]]
[[File:Rivercane basket peggy brennan.jpg|thumb|200px|Rivercane basket in Noon-Day Sun pattern, by Peggy Brennan ([[Cherokee Nation]])]]


===Taxonomic history===
=== Taxonomic history ===
The genus ''Arundinaria'' has a complex [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] history spanning over two centuries. The canes of the southeastern U.S. were originally described as two species of reed grasses in the genus ''[[Arundo]]'' by [[Thomas Walter (botanist)|Thomas Walter]] in 1788. [[André Michaux]], working in 1803 and unaware of Walter's work, correctly interpreted the canes as a distinct group and created the genus ''Arundinaria'' with one species. However, neither of these researchers left enough information to their successors, leading to confusion surrounding the identity of the species they had described. A decade later in 1813, [[G.H.E. Muhlenberg]] noticed the affinities between the two previous authors' work and transferred Walter's two species to Michaux's new genus, yielding a [[combinatio nova]] for each, namely ''Arundinaria gigantea'' <small>(Walt.) Muhl.</small> and ''Arundinaria tecta'' <small>(Walt.) Muhl.</small>. Muhlenberg considered the genus to consist of these two species in addition to ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' <small>Michx.</small>.
The genus ''Arundinaria'' has a complex [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] history spanning over two centuries. The canes of the southeastern U.S. were originally described as two species of reed grasses in the genus ''[[Arundo]]'' by [[Thomas Walter (botanist)|Thomas Walter]] in 1788. [[André Michaux]], working in 1803 and unaware of Walter's work, correctly interpreted the canes as a distinct group and created the genus ''Arundinaria'' with one species. However, neither of these researchers left enough information to their successors, leading to confusion surrounding the identity of the species they had described. A decade later in 1813, [[G.H.E. Muhlenberg]] noticed the affinities between the two previous authors' work and transferred Walter's two species to Michaux's new genus, yielding a [[combinatio nova]] for each, namely ''Arundinaria gigantea'' <small>(Walt.) Muhl.</small> and ''Arundinaria tecta'' <small>(Walt.) Muhl.</small>. Muhlenberg considered the genus to consist of these two species in addition to ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' <small>Michx.</small>.


The [[phenotype|phenotypic]] diversity of the American ''Arundinaria'' bamboos subsequently led to a variety of taxonomic treatments, with some authors arguing that only the North American species should be included, while others included dozens of [[Asia]]n species otherwise considered members of other genera ''([[Bashania]], [[Oligostachyum]], [[Sarocalamus]], [[Fargesia]], [[Sasa (plant)|Sasa]],'' etc.). Even African bamboos were placed in Arundinaria under broad concepts for the group. <ref name=sida/><ref name=chinaflora>{{Citation| last =Zhu| first =Zheng-de; De-zhu, Li; Stapleton, Chris | contribution = Arundinaria| year =2007| title =Flora of China| editor-last =Wu| editor-first =Z. Y.; Raven, P.H.; Hong, D.Y.| volume =22| page =112| place=Beijing| publisher =Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press| contribution-url =http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=102740| access-date =2007-07-15}}</ref> Some outdated systems during this era assigned ''Arundinaria'' more than 400 species.<ref name=flora>{{Citation| last =Clark| first =Lynn G.; Triplett, J.K.| contribution =Arundinaria| year =2006| title =Flora of North America| editor-last =Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+| volume =25| contribution-url =http://www.herbarium.usu.edu/treatments/Arundinaria.htm| place =New York & Oxford| publisher =Oxford University Press| access-date =2007-07-14| archive-date =2010-06-26| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20100626062256/http://www.herbarium.usu.edu/treatments/Arundinaria.htm| url-status =dead}}</ref><ref name=sida>{{citation|last=Triplett |first=J.K.; Weakley, A.S.; Clark, L.G. |title=Hill cane (''Arundinaria appalachiana''), a new species of bamboo (Poaceae: Bambusoideae) from the southern Appalachian Mountains |journal=Sida |volume=22 |pages=79–95 |year=2006 |url=http://www.andestoamazon.com/Sida/PDF/PDF22(1)/03_Triplett-etal_Arundinaria_79-95.pdf |access-date=2007-07-14 |issue=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930021701/http://www.andestoamazon.com/Sida/PDF/PDF22%281%29/03_Triplett-etal_Arundinaria_79-95.pdf |archive-date=2007-09-30 }}</ref>
The [[phenotype|phenotypic]] diversity of the American ''Arundinaria'' bamboos subsequently led to a variety of taxonomic treatments, with some authors arguing that only the North American species should be included, while others included dozens of [[Asia]]n species otherwise considered members of other genera ''([[Bashania]], [[Oligostachyum]], [[Sarocalamus]], [[Fargesia]], [[Sasa (plant)|Sasa]],'' etc.). Even African bamboos were placed in Arundinaria under broad concepts for the group.<ref name=sida /><ref name=chinaflora>{{Citation| last =Zhu| first =Zheng-de; De-zhu, Li; Stapleton, Chris | contribution = Arundinaria| year =2007| title =Flora of China| editor-last =Wu| editor-first =Z. Y.; Raven, P.H.; Hong, D.Y.| volume =22| page =112| place=Beijing| publisher =Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press| contribution-url =http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=102740| access-date =2007-07-15}}</ref> Some outdated systems during this era assigned ''Arundinaria'' more than 400 species.<ref name=flora>{{Citation| last =Clark| first =Lynn G.; Triplett, J.K.| contribution =Arundinaria| year =2006| title =Flora of North America| editor-last =Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+| volume =25| contribution-url =http://www.herbarium.usu.edu/treatments/Arundinaria.htm| place =New York & Oxford| publisher =Oxford University Press| access-date =2007-07-14| archive-date =2010-06-26| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20100626062256/http://www.herbarium.usu.edu/treatments/Arundinaria.htm| url-status =dead}}</ref><ref name=sida>{{Citation|last=Triplett |first=J.K.; Weakley, A.S.; Clark, L.G. |title=Hill cane (''Arundinaria appalachiana''), a new species of bamboo (Poaceae: Bambusoideae) from the southern Appalachian Mountains |journal=Sida |volume=22 |pages=79–95 |year=2006 |url=http://www.andestoamazon.com/Sida/PDF/PDF22(1)/03_Triplett-etal_Arundinaria_79-95.pdf |access-date=2007-07-14 |issue=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930021701/http://www.andestoamazon.com/Sida/PDF/PDF22%281%29/03_Triplett-etal_Arundinaria_79-95.pdf |archive-date=2007-09-30 }}</ref>


[[A. S. Hitchcock]] reviewed the taxonomic state of the North American bamboos in 1951. He interpreted Michaux's ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' <small>Michx.</small> as a [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] of Walter's ''Arundinaria gigantea'' <small>(Walt.) Muhl.</small>, reducing the genus to two species.<ref name=triplett/> By the late 20th century, Floyd Alonzo McClure's 1973 survey of ''[[Arundinaria]]'' was also considered authoritative, and included only one species, ''[[Arundinaria gigantea]]''. Most recently, in 2006 researchers from [[Iowa State University]] and the [[University of North Carolina]] recognised and described a third species, ''[[Arundinaria appalachiana]]'' <small>Triplett, Weakley & L.G. Clark</small>. The plants that form this species were previously thought to form part of the natural [[genetic diversity]] of ''Arundinaria gigantea'' <small>(Walt.) Muhl.</small>, but upon in depth analysis using modern [[phylogenetic]] methods based on morphology and [[amplified fragment length polymorphism]]s, the researchers determined that the canes form three species.<ref name=sida/>[[Phylogenetic]] studies in 2006 using [[Molecular phylogenetics|molecular]] and [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] evidence have suggested that the genus forms three natural species confined to the southeastern United States.
[[A. S. Hitchcock]] reviewed the taxonomic state of the North American bamboos in 1951. He interpreted Michaux's ''Arundinaria macrosperma'' <small>Michx.</small> as a [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] of Walter's ''Arundinaria gigantea'' <small>(Walt.) Muhl.</small>, reducing the genus to two species.<ref name=triplett /> By the late 20th century, Floyd Alonzo McClure's 1973 survey of ''Arundinaria'' was also considered authoritative, and included only one species, ''[[Arundinaria gigantea]]''. Most recently, in 2006 researchers from [[Iowa State University]] and the [[University of North Carolina]] recognised and described a third species, ''[[Arundinaria appalachiana]]'' <small>Triplett, Weakley & L.G. Clark</small>. The plants that form this species were previously thought to form part of the natural [[genetic diversity]] of ''Arundinaria gigantea'' <small>(Walt.) Muhl.</small>, but upon in depth analysis using modern [[phylogenetic]] methods based on morphology and [[amplified fragment length polymorphism]]s, the researchers determined that the canes form three species.<ref name=sida />[[Phylogenetic]] studies in 2006 using [[Molecular phylogenetics|molecular]] and [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] evidence have suggested that the genus forms three natural species confined to the southeastern United States.


==See also==
== See also ==
*[[Canebrakes]]
*[[Canebrakes]]


==References==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


==External links==
== External links ==
* [http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/taes/tracy/610/arundinaria.html Description of ''Arundinaria'']
* [http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/taes/tracy/610/arundinaria.html Description of ''Arundinaria'']


Revision as of 17:08, 24 December 2022

Arundinaria
Arundinaria tecta
northern Florida in March 2003
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Bambusoideae
Tribe: Arundinarieae
Subtribe: Arundinariinae
Genus: Arundinaria
Michx.
Synonyms
  • Ludolfia Willd. 1808, illegitimate homonym not Adans. 1763 (Aizoaceae)
  • Macronax Raf.
  • Miegia Pers. 1805, illegitimate homonym not Schreb. 1791 (Cyperaceae)
  • Triglossum Fisch.

Arundinaria is a genus of bamboo in the grass family the members of which are referred to generally as cane.[1][2] Arundinaria is the only bamboo native to North America, with a native range from Maryland south to Florida and west to the southern Ohio Valley and Texas.[3][4] Within this region Arundinaria canes are found from the Coastal Plain to medium elevations in the Appalachian Mountains.

Prior to the European colonization of the Americas, cane was an important resource for indigenous peoples of the Americas. Early European explorers in the U.S. described vast monotypic stands of Arundinaria that were common in river lowlands and covered hundreds of thousands of hectares. In the modern era, Arundinaria canebrakes are small and isolated, but there has been interest in restoring them due to the cultural and ecological importance of the plant.[5] Canebrakes provided land for crops, habitat for wild game, and year-round forage for livestock. The cane itself was used for construction, weapons, jewelry, medicines, fuel, and food. Canebrakes declined significantly after colonization due to clearing, farming and fire suppression.[6][7][8]

Grouping of Arundinaria gigantea at Cane Ridge Meeting House in Kentucky, USA

Description

Arundinaria species have running rhizomes and have slender, woody culms that reach heights from 0.5 to 8 metres (1.6 to 26.2 ft). Arundinaria produce seeds only rarely and usually reproduce vegetatively, forming large clonal genets. When seed production does occur, the colony usually dies afterwards, possibly because the dense thickets of a mature canebrake would otherwise prevent seedling establishment. Only two flowering events are known for A. appalachiana.[9] A colony of cane will expand rapidly using asexual reproduction following disturbances, particularly fire, which triggers new shoots to immediately sprout from the underground rhizomes after the aboveground part of the plant has burned. These shoots grow quickly, up to 1.5 inches per day.[10] Among the distinctive features of the canes is a fan-like cluster of leaves at the top of new stems called a topknot, so-called because of its resemblance to topknot hairstyles.[6][7]

Accepted species

There are currently three recognized species of the genus Arundinaria accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as of March 2016. For each species listed below, binomial name is followed by author citation.[11]

'Topknot' at the top of an Arundinaria tecta 'switch cane' culm
Dried Arundinaria 'topknot' from the top of an Arundinaria gigantea 'giant river cane' culm
Arundinaria appalachiana along the Little Tennessee River

Conservation

The organization Revitalization of Traditional Cherokee Artisan Resources, using funding from the Cherokee Preservation Foundation, has helped establish restoration sites for Arundinaria gigantea.[12]

Use

Ethnobotanists consider cane to have been extremely important to Native Americans in the Southeastern Woodlands before European colonisation. The plant was used to make structures, arrow shafts, weapons, fishing equipment, jewelry, baskets, musical instruments, furniture, boats, pipe stems, and medicines.[13] Arundinaria gigantea, or river cane, has historically been used to construct Native American flutes, particularly among tribes of the Eastern Woodlands. The Atakapa, Muscogee Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Cherokee, and other Southeastern tribes have traditionally used this material for mat and basket weaving,[14] and the Chitimacha and Eastern Band Cherokee still widely weave with rivercane today, though basket makers have started making smaller baskets in order to use less material and preserve the increasingly rare river cane.[12] Bean poles made from dried canes can last for several years if properly stored when not in use.

Food uses include flour, cereal, and even "asparagus" of young shoots; however, caution should be used whenever foraging for cane seeds, as the extremely toxic fungus Ergot (Claviceps spp.) can colonize its seeds as well as those of the common cereals. Ergot-infected plants will have pink or purplish blotches or growths about the size of a seed or several times larger.[15]

Medicinally, the Choctaw use the roots for their painkilling properties.

Systematics

Two of the three species currently placed in the genus, Arundinaria gigantea and Arundinaria tecta, were first described scientifically by Thomas Walter in his 1788 Flora Caroliniana. Walter placed them in the grass genus Arundo. In 1803, the French botanist André Michaux, unaware of the flora prepared by Walter, also published a description of the canes he encountered. Michaux recognised only one species, but created a new monotypic genus for it: Arundinaria macrosperma Michx..[16] The name of the genus he used is derived from the same Latin word used by Walter for the plants he described; namely arundo, meaning "reed".[6]

Despite the work done by Walter and Michaux, subsequent researchers had difficulty interpreting their circumscriptions of species boundaries. Walter designated no type specimens, and his Latin protologues that describe the species are vague, including features that could be any of the three species currently recognized. Michaux did designate a type specimen for the species he described, but it does not include enough of the plant to determine with confidence which species it represents, while his protologues were likewise not detailed enough to avoid ambiguity. In 2009, epitypes, a new form of botanical type allowed by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature in order to clarify older ambiguous types, were designated for Arundo gigantea Walt. and Arundinaria macrosperma Michx.. This allows current and future researchers to know precisely what is being discussed when the scientific names applied to these plants are used.[16]

Rivercane basket in Noon-Day Sun pattern, by Peggy Brennan (Cherokee Nation)

Taxonomic history

The genus Arundinaria has a complex taxonomic history spanning over two centuries. The canes of the southeastern U.S. were originally described as two species of reed grasses in the genus Arundo by Thomas Walter in 1788. André Michaux, working in 1803 and unaware of Walter's work, correctly interpreted the canes as a distinct group and created the genus Arundinaria with one species. However, neither of these researchers left enough information to their successors, leading to confusion surrounding the identity of the species they had described. A decade later in 1813, G.H.E. Muhlenberg noticed the affinities between the two previous authors' work and transferred Walter's two species to Michaux's new genus, yielding a combinatio nova for each, namely Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl. and Arundinaria tecta (Walt.) Muhl.. Muhlenberg considered the genus to consist of these two species in addition to Arundinaria macrosperma Michx..

The phenotypic diversity of the American Arundinaria bamboos subsequently led to a variety of taxonomic treatments, with some authors arguing that only the North American species should be included, while others included dozens of Asian species otherwise considered members of other genera (Bashania, Oligostachyum, Sarocalamus, Fargesia, Sasa, etc.). Even African bamboos were placed in Arundinaria under broad concepts for the group.[7][17] Some outdated systems during this era assigned Arundinaria more than 400 species.[6][7]

A. S. Hitchcock reviewed the taxonomic state of the North American bamboos in 1951. He interpreted Michaux's Arundinaria macrosperma Michx. as a synonym of Walter's Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl., reducing the genus to two species.[16] By the late 20th century, Floyd Alonzo McClure's 1973 survey of Arundinaria was also considered authoritative, and included only one species, Arundinaria gigantea. Most recently, in 2006 researchers from Iowa State University and the University of North Carolina recognised and described a third species, Arundinaria appalachiana Triplett, Weakley & L.G. Clark. The plants that form this species were previously thought to form part of the natural genetic diversity of Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl., but upon in depth analysis using modern phylogenetic methods based on morphology and amplified fragment length polymorphisms, the researchers determined that the canes form three species.[7]Phylogenetic studies in 2006 using molecular and morphological evidence have suggested that the genus forms three natural species confined to the southeastern United States.

See also

References

  1. ^ Michaux, André (1803). Flora boreali-americana :sistens caracteres plantarum quas in America septentrionali collegit et detexit Andreas Michaux. Vol. 1. Parisiis et Argentorati: apud fratres Levrault.
  2. ^ "Tropicos". www.tropicos.org. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
  3. ^ University, Utah State. "Herbarium". www.usu.edu. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
  4. ^ "2013 BONAP North American Plant Atlas. TaxonMaps". bonap.net. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
  5. ^ Barret, Richard; Grabowski, Janet; Williams, M.J. "Giant Cane and Other Native Bamboos: Establishment and Use for Conservation of Natural Resources in the Southeast" (PDF). ncrs.usda.gov. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved 27 November 2022.
  6. ^ a b c d Clark, Lynn G.; Triplett, J.K. (2006), "Arundinaria", in Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+ (ed.), Flora of North America, vol. 25, New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press, archived from the original on 2010-06-26, retrieved 2007-07-14{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: editors list (link)
  7. ^ a b c d e Triplett, J.K.; Weakley, A.S.; Clark, L.G. (2006), "Hill cane (Arundinaria appalachiana), a new species of bamboo (Poaceae: Bambusoideae) from the southern Appalachian Mountains" (PDF), Sida, 22 (1): 79–95, archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-30, retrieved 2007-07-14{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Brown, Anthony (22 May 2012). "River cane: Important Cherokee cultural staple". theonefeather.com. The Cherokee One Feather.
  9. ^ Campbell, Julian. "Growth of Cane (Arundinaria sensu stricto), the Mysterious Native Bamboo of North America" (PDF). bluegrasswoodland.com.
  10. ^ Cockman, Crystal. "The loss of the great canebrakes". ui.charlotte.edu. UNC Charlotte Urban Institute.
  11. ^ "Arundinaria". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
  12. ^ a b "A New Day for Rivercane". conservingcarolina.org. Conserving Carolina. 23 June 2021.
  13. ^ Platt, Steven G.; Brantley, Christopher G.; Rainwater, Thomas R. (September 2009), "Native American ethnobotany of cane (Arundinaria spp.) in the southeastern United States: a review", Castanea, 74 (3): 271–285, doi:10.2179/08-023R2.1, S2CID 85780027
  14. ^ Mason, Otis T. (1890), Basket-Work of the North American Aborigines, Washington: Government Printing Office
  15. ^ Peterson, Lee. A Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants of Eastern and Central North America. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Page 228. Accessed the sixth of September, 2010. ISBN 0-395-20445-3.
  16. ^ a b c Triplett, Jimmy K.; Clark, Lynn G. (September 2009), "Towards a stable nomenclature for the North American temperate bamboos: epitypification of Arundo gigantea Walt. and Arundinaria macrosperma Michx. (Poaceae)", Castanea, 74 (3): 207–212, doi:10.2179/09-010R1.1, S2CID 83921759
  17. ^ Zhu, Zheng-de; De-zhu, Li; Stapleton, Chris (2007), "Arundinaria", in Wu, Z. Y.; Raven, P.H.; Hong, D.Y. (ed.), Flora of China, vol. 22, Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press, p. 112, retrieved 2007-07-15{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links

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