History of astronomy and Righteous Among the Nations: Difference between pages

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Difference between pages)
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
 
No edit summary
 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Righteous}}'''Righteous among the Nations''' ({{lang-he|חסידי אומות העולם}}, ''Chassidey Umot HaOlam''), which may at times refer to the [[B'nei Noah]] or Noahides as well, is a term used in [[Judaism]] to refer to non-Jews who abide by the [[Seven Laws of Noah]] and thus are assured of meriting [[paradise]].
{{histOfScience}}
[[Astronomy]] is the oldest of the [[natural science]]s, dating back to [[ancient history|antiquity]], with its origins in the [[Religion|religious]], [[mythological]], and [[astrological]] practices of [[pre-history]]: vestiges of these are still found in [[astrology]], a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy, and not completely disentangled from it until a few centuries ago in the [[Western World]] (see [[astrology and astronomy]]). Early astronomy involved observing the regular patterns of the motions of [[visual perception|visible]] [[celestial sphere|celestial]] objects, especially the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], [[star]]s and [[naked eye planets]]. An example of this early astronomy might involve a study of the changing position of the Sun along the horizon or the changing appearances of [[star]]s in the course of the year, which could be used to establish an agricultural or ritual [[Calendar#Pragmatic, theoretical and mixed calendars|calendar]]. In some cultures astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication.


In secular usage, the term is used by the State of [[Israel]] to describe [[gentile|non-Jews]] who risked their lives during [[The Holocaust]] in order to save [[Jew]]s from extermination by the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]]. The secular award (discussed below) by the same name given by the State of Israel has often been translated into English as "Righteous Gentile."
Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and [[planets]], as stars remain relatively fixed over the [[century|centuries]] while planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short time.


==Early history==
==Bestowing==
When [[Yad Vashem]], the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, was established in 1953 by the [[Knesset]], one of its tasks was to commemorate the "Righteous among the Nations". The Righteous were defined as non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust. Since 1963, a commission headed by a justice of the [[Supreme Court of Israel]] has been charged with the duty of awarding the honorary title "Righteous among the Nations." The commission is guided in its work by certain criteria and meticulously studies all documentation, including evidence by survivors and other eyewitnesses, evaluates the historical circumstances and the element of risk to the rescuer, and then decides if the case accords with the criteria.
Early [[culture]]s identified celestial objects with [[mythology|god]]s and [[spiritual being|spirit]]s. They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as [[rain]], [[drought]], [[season]]s, and [[tide]]s. It is generally believed that the first "professional" astronomers were [[priest]]s (such as the [[Magi]]), and that their understanding of the "[[heaven]]s" was seen as "[[divinity|divine]]", hence astronomy's ancient connection to what is now called astrology. Ancient structures with possibly [[Archaeoastronomy#Alignments|astronomical alignments]] (such as [[Stonehenge]]) probably fulfilled both astronomical and [[religion|religious]] [[social function|functions]].


A person who is recognized as "Righteous among the Nations" for having taken risks to help Jews during the Holocaust is awarded a medal bearing their name, a certificate of honor, and the privilege of having their name added to those on the Wall of Honor in the [[Garden of the Righteous]] at [[Yad Vashem]] in [[Jerusalem]]. (The last is in lieu of a tree-planting, which was discontinued for lack of space.) The awards are distributed to the rescuers or their next-of-kin during ceremonies in Israel or in their countries of residence through the offices of Israel's diplomatic representatives. These ceremonies are attended by local government representatives and are given wide media coverage.
[[Calendar]]s of the world have usually been set by the Sun and Moon (measuring the [[day]], [[month]] and [[year]]), and were of importance to [[agriculture|agricultural]] societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year. The most common [[Gregorian calendar|modern calendar]] is based on the [[Roman calendar]], which divided the year into twelve months of alternating thirty and thirty-one days apiece. In [[46 BC]] [[Julius Caesar]] instigated [[Julian calendar|calendar reform]] and adopted a calendar based upon the [[leap year|365 1/4 day year length]] originally proposed by 4th century BC Greek astronomer [[Callippus]].


The Yad Vashem Law also authorizes Yad Vashem "To confer honorary citizenship upon the Righteous among the Nations, and if they have passed away, the [[honorary citizen|commemorative citizenship]] of the State of Israel, in recognition of their actions." Anyone who has been recognized as Righteous among the Nations is entitled to apply to Yad Vashem for the certificate. If the Righteous among the Nations is no longer alive, their next of kin is entitled to request that commemorative citizenship be conferred on the Righteous among the Nations who has died. Recipients who choose to live in the state of Israel are entitled to a pension equal to the average national wage, free health care, as well as assistance with housing and nursing care.
The [[Bible]] contains a number of unsophisticated statements on the position of the Earth in the universe and the nature of the stars and planets; see [[Biblical cosmology]].


By [[1 January]] [[2008]], 22,211 men and women from 44 countries<ref>{{cite news | title = First Arab Nominated for Holocaust Honor | work = | publisher = [[Associated Press]] | date = 2007-01-30 | url = http://www.beliefnet.com/story/211/story_21108_1.html | accessdate = 2007-02-01}}</ref> have been recognized as Righteous among the Nations, representing over 10,000 authenticated rescue stories. Yad Vashem's policy is to pursue the program for as long as petitions for this title are received and are supported by solid evidence that meets the criteria.
==Mesopotamia==
{{main|Babylonian astronomy}}
{{see|Babylonian astrology|Babylonian calendar}}


==By country==
The origins of [[Western culture|Western]] astronomy can be found in [[Mesopotamia]], the "land between the rivers" [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], where the ancient kingdoms of [[Sumer]], [[Assyria]], and [[Babylonia]] were located. A form of writing known as [[cuneiform]] emerged among the Sumerians around 3500-3000 BC. The Sumerians only practiced a basic form of astronomy, but they had an important influence on the sophisticated astronomy of the Babylonians. Astral theology, which gave planetary gods an important role in [[Mesopotamian mythology]] and [[Mesopotamian religion|religion]], began with the Sumerians. They also used a [[sexagesimal]] (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers. The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 [[degree (angle)|degrees]], of 60 minutes each, began with the Sumerians. For more information, see the articles on [[Babylonian numerals]] and [[Babylonian mathematics|mathematics]].
See [[List of Righteous among the Nations by country]] for names of individuals.
{| class="wikitable sortable" align="center"
! scope="col" style="width: 10em;" | Country of origin
! scope="col" | Awards
! scope="col" | Notes
|-
| {{flagcountry|Poland}} || 6,066 ||In [[General Government|German-occupied Poland]], all household members were punished by death if a Jew were found concealed in their home or property,death was a punishment for providing any aid to Jew etc. giving bread or water to passing Jews. This was the most severe law enforced by the Germans in occupied Europe.<ref>Holocaust Survivors and Remembrance Project: [http://isurvived.org/Frameset4References-3/-PolishRighteous.html Poland]</ref><ref>Robert Cherry, Annamaria Orla-Bukowska, ''Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2007, ISBN 0742546667, [http://books.google.com/books?id=vkLTSB7NHwgC&pg=PA5&dq=%22Armia+Krajowa%22+largest&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=dscASPzyLZjWyASY5pi1DA&sig=nedPlTyt1ENbsExRcqoi_ZeaIbI Google Print, p.5]</ref> See [[Polish Righteous among the Nations]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|Netherlands}} || 4,863 ||Includes two persons originally from [[Indonesia]] residing in the Netherlands. In the Netherlands, people hiding Jews would usually be punished by either being sent to concentration camps themselves or even by being shot (usually after a "trial"). Several hundred communist resistance workers never received recognition for saving Jews, because they acted as intermediates in bringing Jews, especially children, to hiding places and their names remained unknown (many of them died in concentration camps).
|-
| {{flagcountry|France}} || 2,833 ||In January, 2007, French President [[Jacques Chirac]] and other dignitaries honored France's Righteous among the Nations in a ceremony at the [[Panthéon, Paris]]. The [[Legion of Honor]] was awarded to 160 French Righteous among the Nations for their efforts saving French Jews during World War II.<ref>[http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=794 Jacques Chirac Honors French World War II Saviors], [[European Jewish Congress]], [[April 11]], [[2007]].</ref>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Ukraine}} || 2,213 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Belgium}} || 1,476 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Lithuania}} || 723 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Hungary}} || 703 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Belarus}} || 587 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Slovakia}} || 478 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Germany}} || 455 ||This includes [[Oskar Schindler]], perhaps the most famous of the Righteous among the Nations.
|-
| {{flagcountry|Italy}} || 442 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Greece}} || 279 ||Including [[Archbishop Damaskinos of Athens]] and [[Princess Alice of Battenberg]].
|-
| {{flagcountry|Serbia}} || 127 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Russia}} || 124 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} || 118 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Croatia}} || 106 || See [[Croatian Righteous Among the Nations]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|Latvia}} || 111 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Austria}} || 85 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Moldova}} || 73 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Albania}} || 63 ||Toptani, Atif & Ganimet
|-
| {{flagcountry|Romania}} || 54 || Including Prince [[Constantin Karadja]] credited by Yad Vashem with saving over 51,000 Jews [http://berlin.mfa.gov.il/mfm/web/main/document.asp?DocumentID=83056&MissionID=88].
|-
| {{flagcountry|Norway}} || 42 || See [[Norwegian Righteous among the Nations]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|Switzerland}} || 44 || Includes [[Carl Lutz]], who helped save tens of thousands of Hungarian Jews.
|-
| {{flagcountry|Bosnia and Herzegovina|name=Bosnia}} || 35 || Bosnia only; the source does not count Herzegovina
|-
| {{flagcountry|Denmark}} || 22 || As per their request, members of the [[Danish resistance movement|Danish Underground]] who participated in the [[rescue of the Danish Jews]] are listed as one group.
|-
| {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}} || 18 || [[Dimitar Peshev]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}} || 14 || This list includes [[Major]] [[Frank Foley]] but excludes Sir [[Nicholas Winton]] as he is of Jewish parentage
|-
| {{flagcountry|Republic of Macedonia}} || 10 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Armenia}} || 10 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Sweden}} || 9 || Including [[Raoul Wallenberg]], [[Per Anger]] and [[Valdemar Langlet]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|Slovenia}} || 6 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|Spain}} || 4 || [[Angel Sanz Briz]], [[José Santaella]], [[Carme Santaella]] and [[Eduardo Propper de Callejón]].
|-
| {{flagcountry|Turkey}} || 4 || [[Necdet Kent]], [[Selahattin Ulkumen]], [[Namık Kemal Yolga]], [[Behic Erkin]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|Estonia}} || 3 ||
|-
| {{flagcountry|USA}} || 3 || [[Varian Fry]], [[Martha Sharp]], [[Waitstill Sharp]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|China}} (or Taiwan) || 2 || [[Pan Jun Shun]] and [[Feng-Shan Ho]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|Brazil}} || 2 || [[Luiz Martins de Souza Dantas]] and [[Aracy de Carvalho Guimarães Rosa]].
|-
| {{flagcountry|Chile}} || 1 || [[María Edwards]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|Japan}} || 1 || [[Chiune Sugihara]] (provided approximately 3,400 transit visas to Jews in need[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/product-description/0684832518])
|-
| {{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} || 1 || [[Victor Bodson]] (former Justice Minister and Chairman of the Luxembourg House of Representatives; saved approximately 100 Jews)
|-
| {{flagcountry|Portugal}} || 1 || [[Aristides de Sousa Mendes]] (issued thousands of visas in order to allow 30,000 people to escape the Nazis)
|-
| {{flagcountry|Georgia}} || 1 || [[Sergei Metreveli]]
|-
| {{flagcountry|Ireland}} || 1 || [[Hugh O'Flaherty]]
|- class="sortbottom"
! Total !! 22,211
| [[As of 2008|As of]] [[January 1]], [[2008]]<ref>[http://www1.yadvashem.org/righteous/index_righteous.html The Righteous among the Nations], [[Yad Vashem]]</ref>
|}
The names of all the Righteous among the Nations recognized by Yad Vashem are listed on the virtual wall of honor of Yad Vashem's website. see: http://www1.yadvashem.org/righteous_new/vwall.html


==See also==
Classical sources frequently use the term [[Chaldeans]] for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in [[astrology]] and other forms of [[divination]].
* [[:Category:Righteous Among the Nations]]

* [[Seven Laws of Noah]], a list of seven moral imperatives which, according to the Talmud, were given by God to Noah as a binding set of laws for all mankind
The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian. Tablets dating back to the [[Old Babylonian period]] document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of [[cuneiform]] tablets known as the ''Enūma Anu Enlil''. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the ''Enūma Anu Enlil'', the Venus tablet of [[Ammi-saduqa]], which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The [[MUL.APIN]], contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting [[heliacal rising]]s and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a [[water-clock]], [[gnomon]], shadows, and [[intercalation]]s. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Pingree|1998}}<br>{{Harvtxt|Rochberg|2004}}<br>{{Harvtxt|Evans|1998}}</ref>
* [[Zegota]] Council to Aid the Jews in occupied Poland

* [[List of people who helped Jews during the Holocaust]]
A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of [[Nabonassar]] (747-733 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greek astronomer [[Ptolemy]] later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time.
* [[Ger tzedek]]

* [[Ger Toshav]]
The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the [[Seleucid Empire]] (323-60 BC). In the third century BC, astronomers began to use "goal-year texts" to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting past records. A notable Babylonian astronomer from this time was [[Seleucus of Seleucia]], who was a supporter of the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric model]].
* [[Noahide Laws]]

* [[Virtuous pagan]]
Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in [[Greek astronomy|Greek and Hellenistic astronomy]], in classical [[Indian astronomy]], in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in [[Islamic astronomy]], in Central Asia, and in Western Europe.<ref name=dp1998>{{Harvtxt|Pingree|1998}}</ref>
* [[List of Righteous among the Nations by country]]

<big><big><big><big><big><big><big><big>OMG!!!!!!

==Egypt==
{{main|Egyptian astronomy}}

The precise orientation of the [[Egyptian pyramids]] affords a lasting demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in the [[3rd millennium BCE]]. It has been shown the Pyramids were aligned towards the [[pole star]], which, because of the [[precession of the equinoxes]], was at that time [[Thuban]], a faint star in the constellation of [[Draco]].<ref>Ruggles, C.L.N. (2005), ''Ancient Astronomy'', pages 354-355. ABC-Clio. ISBN 1-85109-477-6.</ref> Evaluation of the site of the temple of [[Amun-Re]] at [[Karnak]], taking into account the change over time of the [[obliquity of the ecliptic]], has shown that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the [[midwinter]] sun.<ref>Krupp, E.C. (1988). "Light in the Temples", in C.L.N. Ruggles: Records in Stone: Papers in Memory of Alexander Thom. CUP, 473-499. ISBN 0-521-33381-4.</ref> The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year.

Astronomy played a considerable part in [[religious]] matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the [[night]]. The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the [[sun]], [[moon]] and [[stars]]. The rising of [[Sirius]] ([[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]: Sopdet, [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: Sothis) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar.

Writing in the [[Roman era]], [[Clement of Alexandria]] gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites:
<blockquote>And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a ''horologium'' (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a ''palm'' (φοίνιξ), the symbols of [[Egyptian astrology|astrology]]. He must know by heart the [[Hermetism|Hermetic]] astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the sun and moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the sun and moon; and one concerns their risings.<ref>Clement of Alexandria, ''Stromata'', vi. 4</ref></blockquote>

The Astrologer's instruments (''horologium'' and ''palm'') are a [[plumb line]] and sighting instrument. They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the [[Egyptian Museum of Berlin|Berlin Museum]]; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end. The latter was held close to the eye, the former in the other hand, perhaps at arms length. The "Hermetic" books which Clement refers to are the Egyptian theological texts, which probably have nothing to do with [[Hellenistic]] [[Hermetism]].<ref>O Neugebauer, ''Egyptian Planetary Texts'', Transactions, American Philosophical Society, Vol. 32, Part 2, 1942, Page 237.</ref>

From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of [[Rameses VI]] and [[Rameses IX]] it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the [[pole star]] passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star [[culmination|culminating]] or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the [[north]] axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands it might give results of a high degree of accuracy.

==China==
{{Main|Chinese astronomy}}
{{see also|Book of Silk|Chinese astrology|Timeline of Chinese astronomy}}
The astronomy of [[East Asia]] began in [[China]]. [[Solar term]] was completed in [[Warring States Period]]. The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia.

Astronomy in China has a long history. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BCE, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century. Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict [[comets]] and eclipses.

Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose.

Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy. Astronomers took careful note of "guest stars" which suddenly appeared among the [[fixed star]]s. They were the first to record a supernova, in the Astrological Annals of the Houhanshu in 185 A.D. Also, the supernova that created the [[Crab Nebula]] in 1054 is an example of a "guest star" observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries. Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies.
gh

:) :) :) :) :) :) :) :) :)

The world's first [[star catalogue]] was made by [[Gan De]], a [[:Category:Chinese astronomers|Chinese astronomer]], in [[4th century BC]].

==Greece and Hellenistic world!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11==
{{Main|Greek astronomy}}

The [[Ancient Greeks]] developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the [[4th century BC]] by [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]] and [[Callippus of Cyzicus]] . Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary [[Heraclides Ponticus]] proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis.

A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]. They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos. In his ''Timaeus'' Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a world soul.<ref>Plato, ''Timaeus,'' 33B-36D</ref> Aristotle, drawing on the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric [[Celestial spheres|spheres]], whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the earth.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics,'' 1072a18-1074a32</ref> This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the Sixteenth century.

Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentric spheres to employ more complex models in which an [[deferent|eccentric]] circle would carry around a smaller circle, called an [[epicycle]] which in turn carried around a planet. The first such model is attributed to [[Apollonius of Perga]] and further developments in it were carried out in the [[2nd century BC]] by [[Hipparchus|Hipparchus of Nicea]]. Hipparchus made a number of other contributions, including the first measurement of [[precession]] and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed our modern system of [[apparent magnitude]]s.

The study of astronomy by the ancient Greeks was not limited to Greece itself but was further developed in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, in the Hellenistic states and in particular in Alexandria. However, the work was still done by ethnic Greeks. In the 3rd century BC [[Aristarchus of Samos]] was the first to suggest a [[heliocentric]] system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive.<ref>Pedersen, ''Early Physics and Astronomy'', pp. 55-6</ref> [[Eratosthenes]], using the angles of shadows created at widely-separated regions, estimated the circumference of the [[Earth]] with great accuracy.<ref>Pedersen, ''Early Physics and Astronomy'', pp. 45-7</ref>

The [[Antikythera mechanism]], an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 B.C., and was the first ancestor of an astronomical [[computer]]. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of [[Antikythera]], between [[Kythera]] and [[Crete]]. The device became famous for its use of a [[differential gear]], previously believed to have been invented in the [[16th century]], and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the [[18th century]]. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the [[National Archaeological Museum of Athens]], accompanied by a replica.

Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption of physical Greek astronomy is seen with [[Ptolemy|Ptolemy of Alexandria]], who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the ''Megale Syntaxis'' (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title ''[[Almagest]]'', which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the [[Renaissance]]. In his ''Planetary Hypotheses'' Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of [[Aristarchus of Samos]] four centuries earlier.
fuck your mom






stefan was here

==India==
{{Main|Indian astronomy}}
{{See|Jyotisha}}

Ancient Indian astrology is based upon [[sidereal]] calculations. The sidereal astronomy is based upon the [[stars]] and the sidereal period is the time that it takes the object to make one full [[orbit]] around the [[Sun]], relative to the [[stars]]. It can be traced to the final centuries BC with the [[Vedanga Jyotisha]] attributed to [[Lagadha]], one of the circum-Vedic texts, which describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. After formation of [[Indo-Greek]] kingdoms, Indian astronomy was influenced by Hellenistic astronomy (adopting the zodiacal signs or ''[[rāśi]]s'').

Around [[500]] CE, [[Aryabhata]] presented a mathematical system that took the Earth to spin on its axis and considered the motions of the planets with respect to the Sun. He also made an accurate approximation of the Earth's [[circumference]] and [[diameter]], and also discovered how the [[lunar eclipse]] and [[solar eclipse]] happen. He gives the [[radius]] of the planetary [[orbit]]s in terms of the radius of the Earth/Sun orbit as essentially their periods of rotation around the Sun. He was also the earliest to discover that the orbits of the planets around the Sun are [[ellipse]]s. [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Aryabhata_I.html]

[[Brahmagupta]] (598-668) was the head of the astronomical [[observatory]] at [[Ujjain]] and during his tenure there wrote a text on astronomy, the ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta]]'' in [[628]]. He was the earliest to use [[algebra]] to solve astronomical problems. He also developed methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, [[Astronomical conjunction|conjunctions]], and the calculation of eclipses.

[[Bhaskara]] (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the ''Siddhantasiromani'' which consists of two parts: ''Goladhyaya'' (sphere) and ''Grahaganita'' (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places. The Buddhist University of [[Nalanda]] at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies.

Other important astronomers from India include [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]], [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] and [[Jyeshtadeva]], who were members of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] from the [[14th century]] to the [[16th century]]. Nilakantha Somayaji, in his ''Aryabhatiyabhasya'', a commentary on Aryabhata's ''Aryabhatiya'', developed his own computational system for a partially [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] orbit the [[Sun]], which in turn orbits the [[Earth]], similar to the [[Tychonic system]] later proposed by [[Tycho Brahe]] in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more effient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and [[latitude|latitudinal]] motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] who followed him accepted his planetary model.<ref name=Joseph408>George G. Joseph (2000), ''The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics'', 2nd edition, p. 408, Penguin Books, London, ISBN 0691006598</ref><ref>K. Ramasubramanian, M. D. Srinivas, M. S. Sriram (1994). "Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion", ''[[Current Science]]'' '''66''', p. 784-790.</ref>

==Mesoamerica==
{{Main|Maya calendar|Aztec calendar}}
[[Maya civilization|Maya]] astronomical [[Maya codices|codices]] include detailed tables for calculating [[Lunar phases|phases of the Moon]], the recurrence of eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance of [[Venus]] as morning and [[Venus#Observation|evening star]]. The Maya based their [[Maya calendar|calendrics]] in the carefully calculated cycles of the [[Pleiades]], the [[Sun]], the [[Moon]], [[Venus]], [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Mars]], and also they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in the [[Dresden Codex]], as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the [[Milky Way]] was crucial in their Cosmology. (Source:[http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_astronomy.htm Maya Astronomy]). A number of important Maya structures are believed to have been oriented toward the extreme risings and settings of Venus. To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of this planet. [[Mars]] is also mentioned in preserved astronomical codices and early [[Maya mythology|mythology]].<ref>A. F. Aveni, ''Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico,'' (Austin: Univ. of Texas Pr., 1980), pp. 173-99.</ref>

Although the [[Maya calendar]] was not tied to the Sun, [[John E. Teeple|John Teeple]] has proposed that the Maya calculated the [[tropical year|solar year]] to somewhat greater accuracy than the [[Gregorian calendar]].<ref>A. F. Aveni, ''Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico,'' (Austin: Univ. of Texas Pr., 1980), pp. 170-3.</ref> Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of [[Maya civilization#Religion|Maya religion]].

==Islamic astronomy==
{{Main|Islamic astronomy}}
{{See also|Maragheh observatory|Istanbul observatory of al-Din}}

The Arabic world under [[Islam]] had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from [[Greek astronomy]] and [[Indian astronomy]] were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. The late [[9th century]] [[Persian people|Persian]] astronomer [[Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī]] wrote extensively on the motion of celestial bodies. His work was translated into Latin during the [[Latin translations of the 12th century]].

In the 9th century, [[Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi]] (Albumasar) developed a planetary model which has been interpreted as a [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric model]]. This is due to his [[Orbit (disambiguation)|orbital revolutions]] of the planets being given as heliocentric revolutions rather than [[Geocentric model|geocentric]] revolutions, and the only known planetary theory in which this occurs is in the heliocentric theory. His work on planetary theory has not survived, but his astronomical data was later recorded by al-Hashimi and [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|al-Biruni]].<ref>[[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden]] (1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''500''' (1), 525–545 [534-537].</ref>

In the 10th century, [[Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi]] (Azophi) carried out observations on the [[star]]s and described their [[position]]s, [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]]s, brightness, and [[colour]] and drawings for each constellation in his ''[[Book of Fixed Stars]]''. He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic [[constellation]]. This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] astronomers, very probably before [[905]] AD.<ref name="NSOG">{{cite book |last= Kepple |first= George Robert |coauthors= Glen W. Sanner |title= The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1 |publisher= Willmann-Bell, Inc. |year= 1998 |id= ISBN 0-943396-58-1 |pages=18 }}</ref> The first recorded mention of the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]] was also given by al-Sufi.<ref name="obspm">{{cite web | title=Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi) | url=http://messier.obspm.fr/xtra/Bios/alsufi.html | accessdate=2007-04-19 }}</ref><ref name="obspm2">{{cite web | title=Observatoire de Paris (LMC) | url=http://messier.obspm.fr/xtra/ngc/lmc.html | accessdate=2007-04-19 }}</ref> In 1006, [[Ali ibn Ridwan]] observed [[SN 1006]], the brightest [[supernova]] in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star.

In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near [[Tehran]], [[Iran]], by the astronomer [[Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi]] who observed a series of [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]] [[Astronomical transit|transits]] of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the [[Axial tilt|obliquity of the ecliptic]], also known as the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. In 11th-century Persia, [[Omar Khayyám]] compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the [[calendar]] that was more accurate than the [[Julian Calendar|Julian]] and came close to the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]]. An amazing feat was his calculation of the year to be 365.24219858156 days long, which is accurate to the 6th decimal place.

In the early 11th century, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) wrote the ''Maqala fi daw al-qamar'' (''On the Light of the Moon'') some time before 1021. This was the earliest attempt at applying the [[Scientific method|experimental method]] to astronomy and [[astrophysics]], and thus the first successful at combining mathematical astronomy with "[[physics]]" (which then referred to [[Aristotelian physics]]) for several of his astronomical hypotheses. He disproved the universally held opinion that the [[moon]] reflects [[sunlight]] like a [[mirror]] and correctly concluded that it "emits light from those portions of its surface which the [[sun]]'s light strikes." In order to prove that "light is emitted from every point of the moon's illuminated surface," he built an "ingenious [[experiment]]al device." Ibn al-Haytham had "formulated a clear conception of the relationship between an ideal mathematical model and the complex of observable phenomena; in particular, he was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the [[intensity]] of the light-spot formed by the projection of the [[moonlight]] through two small [[aperture]]s onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up."<ref name=Toomer>{{citation|first=G. J.|last=Toomer|title=Review: ''Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik'' by Matthias Schramm|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|volume=55|issue=4|date=December 1964|pages=463–465 [463–4]|doi=10.1086/349914}}</ref>

Other Muslim advances in astronomy included the construction of the first [[observatory]] as a [[research institute]] in [[Baghdad]] during the reign of [[Caliph]] [[al-Ma'mun]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Nas |first=Peter J |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Urban Symbolism |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=1993 |month= |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |location= |language= |isbn=9-0040-9855-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages=350 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref>
the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the [[Geocentric model|Ptolemaic model]], the development of the universal latitude-independent [[astrolabe]] by [[Arzachel]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-3133-2433-6 |pages=196}}</ref> the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of [[astrophysics]] and [[celestial mechanics]] after [[Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir]] theorized that the [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] and [[celestial sphere]]s were subject to the same [[physical law]]s as [[Earth]],<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1994). "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres", ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'' '''25''', p. 115-141 [116].</ref>
the first elaborate [[experiment]]s related to astronomical phenomena and the first [[semantic]] distinction between astronomy and [[astrology]] by [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]],<ref>S. Pines (September 1964). "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni", ''Isis'' '''55''' (3), p. 343-349.</ref>
introduction of exacting [[empirical]] observations and [[experiment]]al techniques,<ref>Toby Huff, ''The Rise of Early Modern Science'', p. 326. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521529948.</ref> and the introduction of empirical testing by [[Ibn al-Shatir]], who produced the first model of [[Moon|lunar]] motion which matched physical observations.<ref>Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise", ''International Education Journal'' '''7''' (4), p. 395-396.</ref>

The [[Earth's rotation]] and [[heliocentrism]] were also discussed by several Muslim astronomers, such as [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], [[Al-Sijzi]] and [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]],<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] (1964), ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines,'' (Cambridge: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press), p. 135-136</ref> while the first empirical [[observation]]al evidence of the Earth's rotation was given by [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] and [[Ali al-Qushji]], and [[al-Birjandi]] developed an early hypothesis on "circular [[inertia]]."<ref name=Ragep>F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", ''Science in Context'' '''14''' (1-2), p. 145–163. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> [[Natural philosophy]] was also separated from astronomy by [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen), Ibn al-Shatir,<ref>Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '''17''', p. 7-55. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> and al-Qushji.<ref name=Ragep/>

It is known that the [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican heliocentric model]] in [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]' ''[[De revolutionibus]]'' was adapted from the [[geocentric model]] of [[Ibn al-Shatir]] and the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha school]] (including the [[Tusi-couple]]) in a heliocentric context,<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]]. <br> The relationship between Copernicus and the Maragha school is detailed in Toby Huff, ''The Rise of Early Modern Science'', [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> and that his arguments for the Earth's rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji.<ref name=Ragep/> Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1994), ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', p. 245, 250, 256-257. [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0814780237.</ref>

==Medieval Western Europe==
{{see|Science in Medieval Western Europe}}

After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the Twelfth century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages.<ref>Henry Smith Williams, ''The Great Astronomers'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1930), pp. 99-102 describes "the record of astronomical progress" from the Council of Nicea (325 AD) to the time of Copernicus (1543 AD) on four blank pages.</ref> Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the Fourth to the Sixteenth centuries.<ref>Stephen C. McCluskey, ''Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-521-77852-2.</ref>

[[Western Europe]] entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of [[classical antiquity]] were written in [[Greek language|Greek]], and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in [[Latin]] were [[Macrobius]], [[Pliny]], [[Martianus Capella]], and [[Calcidius]].<ref>Bruce S. Eastwood, ''Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance'', (Leiden: Brill, 2007) ISBN 979-90-04-16186-3.</ref> In the Sixth Century Bishop [[Gregory of Tours]] noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars.<ref>Stephen C. McCluskey, ''Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 101-110 ISBN 0-521-77852-2.</ref>

In the Seventh Century the English monk [[Bede of Jarrow]] published an influential text, [[De temporum ratione|On the Reckoning of Time]], providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of [[Easter]] using a procedure called ''[[computus]]''. This text remained an important element of the education of Clergy from the Seventh Century until well after the rise of the [[Medieval university#Origins|Universities]] in the [[Renaissance of the 12th century|Twelfth Century]].<ref>Faith Wallis, ed. and trans., ''Bede: The Reckoning of Time'', (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2004), pp. xviii-xxxiv ISBN 0-85323-693-3</ref>

The range of surviving ancient Roman writings on astronomy and the teachings of Bede and his followers began to be studied in earnest during the [[Carolingian Renaissance|revival of learning]] sponsored by the emperor [[Charlemagne]].<ref>Stephen C. McCluskey, ''Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 131-164 ISBN 0-521-77852-2.</ref> By the Ninth Century rudimentary techniques for calculating the position of the planets were circulating in Western Europe; medieval scholars recognized their technical flaws, but texts describing these techniques continued to be copied, reflecting an interest in the motions of the planets and in their astrological significance.<ref>David Juste, "Neither Observation nor Astronomical Tables: An Alternative Way of Computing the Planetary Longitudes in the Early Western Middle Ages," pp. 181-222 in Charles Burnett, Jan P. Hogendijk, Kim Plofker, and Michio Yano, ''Studies in the Exact Sciences in Honour of David Pingree'', (Leiden: Brill, 2004)</ref>

Building on this astronomical background, in the Tenth Century European scholars such as [[Gerbert of Aurillac]] began to travel to the Spain and Sicily to seek out learning which they had heard existed in the Arabic-speaking world. There they first encountered various practical astronomical techniques concerning the calendar and timekeeping, most notably those dealing with the [[astrolabe]]. Soon scholars such as [[Hermann of Reichenau]] were writing texts in Latin on the uses and construction of the astrolabe and others, such as [[Walcher of Malvern]], were using the astrolabe to observe the time of eclipses in order to test the validity of computistical tables.<ref>Stephen C. McCluskey, ''Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 171-187 ISBN 0-521-77852-2.</ref>

By the Twelfth century, scholars were traveling to Spain and Sicily to seek out more advanced astronomical and astrological texts, which they [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translated into Latin]] from Arabic and Greek to further enrich the astronomical knowledge of Western Europe. The arrival of these new texts coincided with the rise of the universities in medieval Europe, in which they soon found a home.<ref>Stephen C. McCluskey, ''Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 188-192 ISBN 0-521-77852-2.</ref> Reflecting the introduction of astronomy into the universities, [[Johannes de Sacrobosco|John of Sacrobosco]] wrote a series of influential introductory astronomy textbooks: the [[De sphaera mundi|Sphere]], a Computus, a text on the [[Quadrant (instrument)|Quadrant]], and another on Calculation.<ref>Olaf Pedersen, "In Quest of Sacrobosco", ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'', 16(1985): 175-221</ref>

In the [[14th century]], [[Nicole Oresme]], later bishop of Liseux, showed that neither the scriptural texts nor the physical arguments advanced against the movement of the Earth were demonstrative and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and ''not'' the heavens. However, he concluded "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved."<ref>Nicole Oresme, ''Le Livre du ciel et du monde'', xxv, ed. A. D. Menut and A. J. Denomy, trans. A. D. Menut, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1968), quotation at pp. 536-7.</ref> In the [[15th century]], cardinal [[Nicholas of Cusa]] suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. He was not, however, describing a scientifically verifiable theory of the universe.

== Copernican revolution ==
[[Image:galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that our Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like our Moon.]]

The [[renaissance]] came to astronomy with the work of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], who proposed a [[heliocentric]] system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth. His ''[[De revolutionibus]]'' provided a full mathematical discussion of his system, using the geometrical techniques that had been traditional in astronomy since before the time of [[Ptolemy]]. His work was later defended, expanded upon and modified by [[Galileo Galilei]] and [[Johannes Kepler]].

Galileo was among the first to use a [[Refracting telescope|telescope]] to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x [[refractor telescope]] he discovered the four largest [[Galilean moon|moon]]s of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] in [[1610]]. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that our Moon had [[Impact crater|craters]] and observed (and correctly explained) [[sunspots]]. Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of [[Phases of Venus|phases]] resembling [[lunar phase]]s. Galileo argued that these observations supported the Copernican system and were, to some extent, incompatible with the favored model of the Earth at the center of the universe.

== Uniting physics and astronomy ==
[[Image:Table of Astronomy, Cyclopaedia, Volume 1, p 164.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Table of astronomy, from the 1728 ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'']]
Although the motions of celestial bodies had been qualitatively explained in physical terms since Aristotle introduced celestial movers in his [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]] and a fifth element in his [[On the Heavens]], [[Johannes Kepler]] was the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes.<ref>Bruce Stephenson, ''Kepler's physical astronomy,'' (New York: Springer, 1987), pp. 67-75.</ref><ref>"[Kepler's] revolutionary role lay in his successful attempt to solve the problem of uniting astronomy and natural philosophy which had been sought for two thousand years." P. 484 in Wilbur Applebaum, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996HisSc..34..451A "Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler: Researches and Problems,"] ''History of Science'', 34 (1996): 451-504.</ref> Combining his physical insights with the unprecedentedly accurate naked-eye observations made by [[Tycho Brahe]],<ref>"We have found Tycho's mature planetary observations to be consistently accurate to within about 1'." P. 30, n. 2 in Owen Gingerich and James R. Voelkel, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998JHA....29....1G "Tycho Brahe's Copernican Campaign,"] ''Journal for the History of Astronomy,'' 29(1998): 2-34</ref><ref>The average error of Tycho's stellar observations, as recorded in his observational logs, varied from 32.3" to 48.8" for different instruments. Table 4 in Walter G. Wesley, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978JHA.....9...42W "The Accuracy of Tycho Brahe's Instruments,"] ''Journal for the History of Astronomy,'' 9(1978): 42-53.</ref><ref>An error of as much as 3' was introduced into some of the stellar positions published in Tycho's star catalog due to Tycho's application of an erroneous ancient value of parallax and his neglect of refraction. See Dennis Rawlins, "Tycho's 1004 Star Catalog", [http://www.dioi.org/vols/w30.pdf DIO 3] (1993), p. 20.</ref> Kepler discovered the three [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|laws of planetary motion]] that now carry his name.<ref>[[John Holmes (schoolmaster)|Holmes, John]], ''Astronomy Ancient and Modern'' (1751)</ref>

[[Isaac Newton]] developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his [[Gravitation#Newton's theory of gravitation|law of universal gravitation]]. Realising that the same force that attracted objects to the surface of the Earth held the moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain - in one theoretical framework - all known gravitational phenomena. In his [[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]], he derived [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws]] from [[first principles]]. Newton's theoretical developments lay many of the foundations of [[modern physics]].

== Modern astronomy ==
At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of [[spectral line]]s were observed (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique elements. It was proved that the [[chemical element]]s found in the Sun (chiefly [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]) were also found on Earth.
During the 20th century [[spectrometry]] (the study of these lines) advanced, especially because of the advent of [[quantum physics]], that was necessary to understand the observations.

Although in previous centuries noted astronomers were exclusively male, at the turn of the 20th century women began to play a role in the great discoveries. In this period prior to modern computers, women at the [[United States Naval Observatory]] (USNO), [[Harvard University]], and other astronomy research institutions often served as human "computers," who performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge. [http://maia.usno.navy.mil/women_history/history.html] A number of discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women "computers" and reported to their supervisors. For example, [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] discovered the [[cepheid variable]] star period-luminosity relation, [[Annie Jump Cannon]] organized the stellar [[stellar classification|spectral types]] according to stellar temperature, and [[Maria Mitchell]] discovered a comet using a telescope. (See [http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/womenast_bib.html] for more women astronomers.) Some of these women received little or no recognition during their lives due to their lower professional standing in the field of astronomy. And although their discoveries are taught in classrooms around the world, few students of astronomy can attribute the works to their authors.

== Cosmology and the expansion of the universe ==
{{Main|Physical cosmology#History of physical cosmology}}
Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century. With the help of the use of [[photography]], fainter objects were observed. Our sun was found to be part of a [[galaxy]] made up of more than 10<sup>10</sup> stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of ''[[the great debate]]'', was settled by [[Edwin Hubble]], who identified the [[Andromeda Galaxy|Andromeda nebula]] as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy.

[[Physical cosmology]], a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot [[big bang]] heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the [[redshift]]s of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]], [[Hubble's law]] and [[big bang nucleosynthesis|cosmological abundances of elements]].

== New windows into the Cosmos open ==
Late in the 19th century, scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: [[X-Ray]]s, [[gamma ray]]s, [[radio wave]]s, [[microwave]]s, [[ultraviolet radiation]], and [[infrared radiation]]. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of [[infrared astronomy]], [[radio astronomy]], [[x-ray astronomy]] and finally [[gamma-ray astronomy]]. With the advent of [[spectroscopy]] it was proved that other stars were similar to our own sun, but with a range of [[temperature]]s, [[mass]]es and sizes. The existence of our [[galaxy]], the [[Milky Way]], as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the [[universe]] seen in the recession of most galaxies from us.


==Notes==
==Notes==
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Archaeoastronomy]]
* [[History of astrology]]
* [[History of astronomical interferometry]]
* [[History of supernova observation]]
* [[List of Astronomical Instrument Makers]]
* [[List of Observatories]]
* [[History of telescopes]]
* [[Hebrew astronomy]]

==Historians of astronomy==
* Scholars Past. [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984QJRAS..25..373 Willy Hartner], [[Otto Neugebauer]], [[B. L. van der Waerden]]
* Scholars Present. [http://punsterproductions.com/~sciencehistory Stephen G. Brush], [http://history.nasa.gov Stephen J. Dick], [[Owen Gingerich]], [http://adlerplanetarium.org/research/history/staff.shtml Bruce Stephenson], [https://blackhole.aas.org/had/doggett/2004doggett2hoskin.html Michael Hoskin], [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~ajones/index.html Alexander R. Jones], [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995gha..book.....T Curtis A. Wilson]
* Astronomer-historians. [[Delambre|J. B. J. Delambre]], [[J. L. E. Dreyer]], [[Donald Osterbrock]], [[Carl Sagan]], [[F. Richard Stephenson]]


==References==
==References==
*''Righteous Gentiles of the Holocaust: Genocide and Moral Obligation'', [[David Gushee]], ISBN 1-55778-821-9, Paragon House Publishers
* Aaboe, Asger. ''Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy''. Springer-Verlag 2001 ISBN 0-387-95136-9
*''The Heart Has Reasons: Holocaust Rescuers and Their Stories of Courage'',Klempner, Mark, ISBN 0-8298-1699-2, The Pilgrim Press
* Aveni, Anthony F. ''Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico''. University of Texas Press 1980 ISBN 0-292-77557-1
*''The Lexicon of the Righteous Among the Nations'', Yad Vashem, Jerusalem. (volumes: Poland, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Europe I, Europe II)
* [[J. L. E. Dreyer|Dreyer, J. L. E.]] ''History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler'', 2nd edition. Dover Publications 1953 (revised reprint of ''History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler'', 1906)
*''To Save a Life: Stories of Holocaust Rescue'', Land-Weber, Ellen, ISBN 0-252-02515-6, University of Illinois Press
* Eastwood, Bruce. ''The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian Europe'', Variorum Collected Studies Series CS 279 Ashgate 2002 ISBN 0-86078-868-7
*''The Seven Laws of Noah'', Lichtenstein, Aaron, New York: The Rabbi Jacob Joseph School Press, 1981.
* {{Citation | last=Evans | first=James | author-link= | year=1998 | title=The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn =0195095391}}.
*''The Image of the Non-Jew in Judaism'', Novak, David, ISBN 0-88946-975-X, New York and Toronto: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1983.
* Antoine Gautier, ''L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane'', in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by [[Camille Flammarion]] in 1882), December 2005, volume 119.
*''The Path of the Righteous: Gentile Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust'', Paldiel, Mordecai, ISBN 0-88125-376-6, KTAV Publishing House, Inc.
* Hodson, F. R. (ed.). ''The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World'': A Joint Symposium of the Royal Society and the British Academy. Oxford University Press, 1974 ISBN 0-19-725944-8
* ''Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust's Long Reach into Arab Lands'', [[Robert Satloff]], Washington Institute for Near East Policy, (PublicAffairs, 2006) ISBN 1586483994
* Hoskin, Michael. ''The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280306-9
*''When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland'', Tec, Nechama, ISBN 0-19-505194-7, Oxford University Press
* McCluskey, Stephen C. ''Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe''. Cambridge University Press 1998 ISBN 0-521-77852-2
*''Zegota: The Council to Aid Jews in Occupied Poland 1942-1945'', Tomaszewski, Irene & Werblowski, Tecia, ISBN 1-896881-15-7, Price-Patterson
* [[Otto E. Neugebauer|Neugebauer, Otto]]. ''The Exact Sciences in Antiquity'', 2nd edition. Dover Publications 1969
*''Tolerance in Judaism: The Medieval and Modern Sources'', Zuesse, Evan M., In: The Encyclopaedia of Judaism, edited by J. Neusner, A. Avery-Peck, and W.S. Green, Second Edition, ISBN 90-04-14787-X, Leiden: Brill, 2005, Vol. IV: 2688-2713
* [[Anton Pannekoek|Pannekoek, Anton]]. ''A History of Astronomy''. Dover Publications 1989
*''When Courage Was Stronger Than Fear: Remarkable Stories of Christians Who Saved Jews from the Holocaust'' by Peter Hellman. 2nd edition, ISBN 1-56924-663-7, Marlowe & Companym, 1999
* Pedersen, Olaf. ''Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction'', revised edition. Cambridge University Press 1993 ISBN 0-521-40899-7
* {{Citation | last=Pingree | first=David | author-link=David Pingree | year=1998 | contribution=Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens | editor-last=Dalley | editor-first=Stephanie | editor-link= | title=The Legacy of Mesopotamia | publisher=Oxford University Press | pages=pp. 125 – 137 | isbn =0198149468}}.
* {{Citation | last=Rochberg | first=Francesca | author-link= | year=2004 | title=The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture | publisher=Cambridge University Press}}.
* Stephenson, Bruce. ''Kepler's Physical Astronomy'', Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, 13. New York: Springer, 1987 ISBN 0-387-96541-6
* Walker, Christopher (ed.). ''Astronomy before the telescope''. British Museum Press 1996 ISBN 0-7141-1746-3

==Refereed Journals==
* [http://www.dioi.org DIO: The International Journal of Scientific History]
* [http://www.shpltd.co.uk/jha.html Journal for the History of Astronomy]
* [http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/mathphys/astronomy/jah2/index.shtml Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage]


==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/righteous_new/index.html The Righteous Among the Nations] at Yad Vashem
* [http://www.astro.uni-bonn.de/~pbrosche/ Astronomiae Historia / History of Astronomy] at the Astronomical Institutes of Bonn University.
*[http://isurvived.org/TOC-II.html#Up Heroes and Heroines of the Holocaust] at Holocaust Survivors' Network
* [http://www.le.ac.uk/has/c41/ Commission 41 (History of Astronomy)] of the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU)
*[http://www.hearthasreasons.com/bibliography.php Holocaust Rescuers Bibliography]
* [http://www.shastro.org.uk Society for the History of Astronomy]
* [http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_astronomy.htm Mayan Astronomy]
*[http://www.savingjews.org Saving Jews: Polish Righteous]
*[http://motlc.wiesenthal.org/albums/palbum/p03/a0190p3.html Photo gallery on righteous gentiles during the Holocaust] at [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Topics/astronomy/home.html Caelum Antiquum]: Ancient Astronomy and Astrology at [[LacusCurtius]]
*[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Holocaust/rescuetoc.html Rescuers] at [[Jewish Virtual Library]]
* [http://www.giovannipastore.it/CALCOLATORE%20DI%20ANTIKYTHERA.htm The Antikythera Calculator (Italian and English versions) - Ing. Giovanni Pastore]
*[http://www.spacetime-sensor.de/wallenberg.htm Holocaust Memorial Budapest, testimony from the family Jakobovics in 1947]

*[http://www.raoul-wallenberg.asso.fr/raoul_wallenberg_arch/wallenberg_test/wallenberg_testi.html Witness: "Karoly Szabo played a determining role among Wallenberg's supporters"]
[[Category:History of astronomy| ]]
*[http://www.jfr.org/site/PageServer The Jewish Foundation for the Righteous]
[[Category:History of earth science]]
*[http://www.pbs.org/auschwitz/learning/index.html Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi State]
[[Category:History of astrology]]
*[http://zyciezazycie.pl/index.php?lang=en Site commemorating Poles who gave their lives to save Jews]
* [http://www.gariwo.net/eng_new/ Gardens of the Righteous Worldwide Committee]


[[Category:Righteous Among the Nations| ]]
{{Link FA|it}}
[[Category:Noahides]]
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[Category:Honorary titles]]
[[Category:Humanitarian and service awards]]
[[Category:Israeli awards]]


[[ca:Justos entre les Nacions]]
[[bn:জ্যোতির্বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস]]
[[cs:Spravedlivý mezi národy]]
[[ca:Història de l'astronomia]]
[[de:Geschichte der Astronomie]]
[[de:Gerechter unter den Völkern]]
[[es:Justos entre las Naciones]]
[[et:Astronoomia ajalugu]]
[[es:Historia de la astronomía]]
[[eo:Justuloj inter la popoloj]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'astronomie]]
[[fr:Juste parmi les Nations]]
[[gl:Historia da Astronomía]]
[[it:Giusti tra le nazioni]]
[[he:חסיד אומות העולם]]
[[ko:천문학의 역사]]
[[hu:Világ Igaza]]
[[ia:Historia del astronomia]]
[[nl:Rechtvaardige onder de Volkeren]]
[[it:Storia dell'astronomia]]
[[ja:諸国民の中の正義の人]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van de astronomie]]
[[no:Righteous Among the Nations]]
[[ja:天文学史]]
[[nrm:Juste parmi les nâtions]]
[[pt:História da astronomia]]
[[nds:De Gerechten mank de Völker]]
[[ro:Istoria astronomiei]]
[[pl:Sprawiedliwy wśród Narodów Świata]]
[[ru:История астрономии]]
[[pt:Justos entre as nações]]
[[sk:Dejiny astronómie]]
[[ro:Drept între popoare]]
[[fi:Tähtitieteen historia]]
[[ru:Праведники мира]]
[[sv:Astronomins historia]]
[[sk:Spravodlivý medzi národmi]]
[[vi:Lịch sử thiên văn học]]
[[fi:Vanhurskaat kansakuntien joukossa]]
[[zh:天文学史]]
[[sv:Rättfärdig bland folken]]
[[yi:חסידי אומות העולם]]

Revision as of 12:28, 10 October 2008

Righteous
Among the Nations
By country

Righteous among the Nations (Hebrew: חסידי אומות העולם, Chassidey Umot HaOlam), which may at times refer to the B'nei Noah or Noahides as well, is a term used in Judaism to refer to non-Jews who abide by the Seven Laws of Noah and thus are assured of meriting paradise.

In secular usage, the term is used by the State of Israel to describe non-Jews who risked their lives during The Holocaust in order to save Jews from extermination by the Nazis. The secular award (discussed below) by the same name given by the State of Israel has often been translated into English as "Righteous Gentile."

Bestowing

When Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, was established in 1953 by the Knesset, one of its tasks was to commemorate the "Righteous among the Nations". The Righteous were defined as non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust. Since 1963, a commission headed by a justice of the Supreme Court of Israel has been charged with the duty of awarding the honorary title "Righteous among the Nations." The commission is guided in its work by certain criteria and meticulously studies all documentation, including evidence by survivors and other eyewitnesses, evaluates the historical circumstances and the element of risk to the rescuer, and then decides if the case accords with the criteria.

A person who is recognized as "Righteous among the Nations" for having taken risks to help Jews during the Holocaust is awarded a medal bearing their name, a certificate of honor, and the privilege of having their name added to those on the Wall of Honor in the Garden of the Righteous at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem. (The last is in lieu of a tree-planting, which was discontinued for lack of space.) The awards are distributed to the rescuers or their next-of-kin during ceremonies in Israel or in their countries of residence through the offices of Israel's diplomatic representatives. These ceremonies are attended by local government representatives and are given wide media coverage.

The Yad Vashem Law also authorizes Yad Vashem "To confer honorary citizenship upon the Righteous among the Nations, and if they have passed away, the commemorative citizenship of the State of Israel, in recognition of their actions." Anyone who has been recognized as Righteous among the Nations is entitled to apply to Yad Vashem for the certificate. If the Righteous among the Nations is no longer alive, their next of kin is entitled to request that commemorative citizenship be conferred on the Righteous among the Nations who has died. Recipients who choose to live in the state of Israel are entitled to a pension equal to the average national wage, free health care, as well as assistance with housing and nursing care.

By 1 January 2008, 22,211 men and women from 44 countries[1] have been recognized as Righteous among the Nations, representing over 10,000 authenticated rescue stories. Yad Vashem's policy is to pursue the program for as long as petitions for this title are received and are supported by solid evidence that meets the criteria.

By country

See List of Righteous among the Nations by country for names of individuals.

Country of origin Awards Notes
 Poland 6,066 In German-occupied Poland, all household members were punished by death if a Jew were found concealed in their home or property,death was a punishment for providing any aid to Jew etc. giving bread or water to passing Jews. This was the most severe law enforced by the Germans in occupied Europe.[2][3] See Polish Righteous among the Nations
 Netherlands 4,863 Includes two persons originally from Indonesia residing in the Netherlands. In the Netherlands, people hiding Jews would usually be punished by either being sent to concentration camps themselves or even by being shot (usually after a "trial"). Several hundred communist resistance workers never received recognition for saving Jews, because they acted as intermediates in bringing Jews, especially children, to hiding places and their names remained unknown (many of them died in concentration camps).
 France 2,833 In January, 2007, French President Jacques Chirac and other dignitaries honored France's Righteous among the Nations in a ceremony at the Panthéon, Paris. The Legion of Honor was awarded to 160 French Righteous among the Nations for their efforts saving French Jews during World War II.[4]
 Ukraine 2,213
 Belgium 1,476
 Lithuania 723
 Hungary 703
 Belarus 587
 Slovakia 478
 Germany 455 This includes Oskar Schindler, perhaps the most famous of the Righteous among the Nations.
 Italy 442
 Greece 279 Including Archbishop Damaskinos of Athens and Princess Alice of Battenberg.
 Serbia 127
 Russia 124
 Czech Republic 118
 Croatia 106 See Croatian Righteous Among the Nations
 Latvia 111
 Austria 85
 Moldova 73
 Albania 63 Toptani, Atif & Ganimet
 Romania 54 Including Prince Constantin Karadja credited by Yad Vashem with saving over 51,000 Jews [1].
 Norway 42 See Norwegian Righteous among the Nations
  Switzerland 44 Includes Carl Lutz, who helped save tens of thousands of Hungarian Jews.
 Bosnia 35 Bosnia only; the source does not count Herzegovina
 Denmark 22 As per their request, members of the Danish Underground who participated in the rescue of the Danish Jews are listed as one group.
 Bulgaria 18 Dimitar Peshev
 United Kingdom 14 This list includes Major Frank Foley but excludes Sir Nicholas Winton as he is of Jewish parentage
 Macedonia 10
 Armenia 10
 Sweden 9 Including Raoul Wallenberg, Per Anger and Valdemar Langlet
 Slovenia 6
 Spain 4 Angel Sanz Briz, José Santaella, Carme Santaella and Eduardo Propper de Callejón.
 Turkey 4 Necdet Kent, Selahattin Ulkumen, Namık Kemal Yolga, Behic Erkin
 Estonia 3
 United States 3 Varian Fry, Martha Sharp, Waitstill Sharp
 China (or Taiwan) 2 Pan Jun Shun and Feng-Shan Ho
 Brazil 2 Luiz Martins de Souza Dantas and Aracy de Carvalho Guimarães Rosa.
 Chile 1 María Edwards
 Japan 1 Chiune Sugihara (provided approximately 3,400 transit visas to Jews in need[2])
 Luxembourg 1 Victor Bodson (former Justice Minister and Chairman of the Luxembourg House of Representatives; saved approximately 100 Jews)
 Portugal 1 Aristides de Sousa Mendes (issued thousands of visas in order to allow 30,000 people to escape the Nazis)
 Georgia 1 Sergei Metreveli
 Ireland 1 Hugh O'Flaherty
Total 22,211 As of January 1, 2008[5]

The names of all the Righteous among the Nations recognized by Yad Vashem are listed on the virtual wall of honor of Yad Vashem's website. see: http://www1.yadvashem.org/righteous_new/vwall.html

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "First Arab Nominated for Holocaust Honor". Associated Press. 2007-01-30. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
  2. ^ Holocaust Survivors and Remembrance Project: Poland
  3. ^ Robert Cherry, Annamaria Orla-Bukowska, Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future, Rowman & Littlefield, 2007, ISBN 0742546667, Google Print, p.5
  4. ^ Jacques Chirac Honors French World War II Saviors, European Jewish Congress, April 11, 2007.
  5. ^ The Righteous among the Nations, Yad Vashem

References

  • Righteous Gentiles of the Holocaust: Genocide and Moral Obligation, David Gushee, ISBN 1-55778-821-9, Paragon House Publishers
  • The Heart Has Reasons: Holocaust Rescuers and Their Stories of Courage,Klempner, Mark, ISBN 0-8298-1699-2, The Pilgrim Press
  • The Lexicon of the Righteous Among the Nations, Yad Vashem, Jerusalem. (volumes: Poland, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Europe I, Europe II)
  • To Save a Life: Stories of Holocaust Rescue, Land-Weber, Ellen, ISBN 0-252-02515-6, University of Illinois Press
  • The Seven Laws of Noah, Lichtenstein, Aaron, New York: The Rabbi Jacob Joseph School Press, 1981.
  • The Image of the Non-Jew in Judaism, Novak, David, ISBN 0-88946-975-X, New York and Toronto: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1983.
  • The Path of the Righteous: Gentile Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust, Paldiel, Mordecai, ISBN 0-88125-376-6, KTAV Publishing House, Inc.
  • Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust's Long Reach into Arab Lands, Robert Satloff, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, (PublicAffairs, 2006) ISBN 1586483994
  • When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland, Tec, Nechama, ISBN 0-19-505194-7, Oxford University Press
  • Zegota: The Council to Aid Jews in Occupied Poland 1942-1945, Tomaszewski, Irene & Werblowski, Tecia, ISBN 1-896881-15-7, Price-Patterson
  • Tolerance in Judaism: The Medieval and Modern Sources, Zuesse, Evan M., In: The Encyclopaedia of Judaism, edited by J. Neusner, A. Avery-Peck, and W.S. Green, Second Edition, ISBN 90-04-14787-X, Leiden: Brill, 2005, Vol. IV: 2688-2713
  • When Courage Was Stronger Than Fear: Remarkable Stories of Christians Who Saved Jews from the Holocaust by Peter Hellman. 2nd edition, ISBN 1-56924-663-7, Marlowe & Companym, 1999

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&oldid=244357691"