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{{Short description|Language}}
{{infobox language
{{infobox language
|name=Waxiang
|name=Waxiang
|altname=Waxianghua, Wogang
|altname=Waxianghua, Xianghua, Wogang
|nativename=瓦鄉話/瓦乡话<br>''Wǎxiānghuà''
|nativename=瓦鄉話/瓦乡话<br>''Wǎxiānghuà''
|states=[[China]]
|states=[[China]]
|region=western [[Hunan]]
|region=western [[Hunan]]
|ethnicity=[[Waxiang people]]
|speakers=300,000
|speakers=300,000
|date=1995
|date=1995
Line 10: Line 12:
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|fam2=[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
|fam2=[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
|fam3=[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
|fam3=(unclassified)
|fam4=(unclassified)
|ancestor=[[Proto-Sino-Tibetan language|Proto-Sino-Tibetan]]
|ancestor2=[[Old Chinese]]<ref name="glottoWaxiang">{{Cite journal |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/waxi1236 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - Waxianghua |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824193433/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/waxi1236 |archive-date=2023-08-24 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |author-link=Harald Hammarström |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |publication-place=[[Leipzig]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7398962 |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |author-link3=Martin Haspelmath |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian |doi-access=free}}</ref>
|ancestor3=[[Middle Chinese]]?
|iso3=wxa
|iso3=wxa
|glotto=waxi1236
|glotto=waxi1236
Line 16: Line 22:
|glottofoot=no
|glottofoot=no
|map=Xiang.jpg
|map=Xiang.jpg
|mapcaption=Dialect map of [[Hunan]].<br>Waxianhua is the bit of dark blue in the medium blue (SW Mandarin) just above the red (Xiang)
|mapcaption=Dialect map of [[Hunan]].<br>Waxiang is dark blue on the map.
}}
}}


'''Waxiang''' ({{zh|t=瓦鄉話|s=瓦乡话|p=Wǎxiānghuà}}; ''ɕioŋ˥tsa˧'') is a divergent variety of [[Chinese language|Chinese]],<ref name="OCNR p34">{{cite book | title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
'''Waxiang''' ({{zh|t=瓦鄉話|s=瓦乡话|p=Wǎxiānghuà}}; {{Transliteration|wxa|ɕioŋ˥tsa˧}}) is a divergent variety of [[Chinese language|Chinese]],<ref name="OCNR p34">{{cite book | title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
| first1 = William | last1 = Baxter | author1-link = William H. Baxter
| first1 = William | last1 = Baxter | author1-link = William H. Baxter
| first2 = Laurent | last2 = Sagart | author2-link = Laurent Sagart
| first2 = Laurent | last2 = Sagart | author2-link = Laurent Sagart
Line 29: Line 35:
| publisher = [[Walter de Gruyter]] | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-3-11-021914-2
| publisher = [[Walter de Gruyter]] | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-3-11-021914-2
| page = 73
| page = 73
}}</ref> spoken by the [[Waxiang people]], an [[Unrecognized ethnic groups in China|unrecognized ethnic minority group]] in the northwestern part of [[Hunan]] province, [[China]]. Waxiang is a distinct language, very different from its surrounding [[Southwestern Mandarin]], [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]] and [[Qo Xiong language|Qo Xiong]] languages.
}}</ref> spoken by the [[Waxiang people]], an [[Unrecognized ethnic groups in China|unrecognized ethnic minority group]] in the northwestern part of [[Hunan]] province, [[China]]. Waxiang is a distinct language, and is very different from the surrounding [[Southwestern Mandarin]], [[Xiang Chinese]], and the [[Qo Xiong language|Eastern Miao]] (Xong) languages.


==Classification==
==Classification==
{{see|Greater Bai languages}}
{{see|Macro-Bai languages}}
As noted by [[Laurent Sagart]] (2011)<ref name="Sagart2011">Sagart, Laurent. 2011. Classifying Chinese dialects/Sinitic languages on shared innovations. Talk given at Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l’Asie orientale, Norgent sur Marne.</ref> and others,<ref name="deSousa2015">de Sousa, Hilário. 2015. [http://hilario.bambooradical.com/downloadables/de-Sousa-2015-Far-Southern-Sinitic-as-MSEA-draft-20140919.pdf The Far Southern Sinitic Languages as part of Mainland Southeast Asia]. In Enfield, N.J. & Comrie, Bernard (eds.), Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: The state of the art (Pacific Linguistics 649), 356–439. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. {{doi|10.1515/9781501501685-009}}.</ref><ref>[http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_8967627a0101rnbv.html 湘西瓦乡话“吃饭”【柔摸】读音来历考]</ref><ref>[http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_8967627a0101du6j.html 沅陵乡话（船溪）与白语蔡家话个别读音对比]</ref> Waxiang appears to share some words with the [[Caijia language]] of western [[Guizhou]]. Sagart (2011) considers Caijia to be a sister of Waxiang. Currently, Waxiang is classified as a divergent Chinese variety rather than a non-Sinitic language.<ref name="OCNR p34"/><ref name="Kurpaska"/> Similarities among [[Old Chinese]], Waxiang, Caijia, and [[Bai language|Bai]] have also been pointed out by Wu & Shen (2010).<ref>Wu Yunji, Shen Ruiqing [伍云姬、沈瑞清]. 2010. ''An Investigative Report of Waxianghua of Guzhang County, Xiangxi Prefecture'' [湘西古丈瓦乡话调查报告]. Shanghai Educational Press [上海教育出版社].</ref>
As noted by [[Laurent Sagart]] (2011)<ref name="Sagart2011">Sagart, Laurent. 2011. Classifying Chinese dialects/Sinitic languages on shared innovations. Talk given at Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l’Asie orientale, Norgent sur Marne.</ref> and others,<ref name="deSousa2015">de Sousa, Hilário. 2015. [http://hilario.bambooradical.com/downloadables/de-Sousa-2015-Far-Southern-Sinitic-as-MSEA-draft-20140919.pdf The Far Southern Sinitic Languages as part of Mainland Southeast Asia]. In Enfield, N.J. & Comrie, Bernard (eds.), Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: The state of the art (Pacific Linguistics 649), 356–439. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. {{doi|10.1515/9781501501685-009}}.</ref><ref>[http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_8967627a0101rnbv.html 湘西瓦乡话“吃饭”【柔摸】读音来历考]</ref><ref>[http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_8967627a0101du6j.html 沅陵乡话（船溪）与白语蔡家话个别读音对比]</ref> Waxiang appears to share some words with the [[Caijia language]] of western [[Guizhou]]. Sagart (2011) considers Caijia to be a sister of Waxiang. Currently, Waxiang is classified as a divergent Chinese variety rather than a non-Sinitic language.<ref name="OCNR p34"/><ref name="Kurpaska"/> Similarities among [[Old Chinese]], Waxiang, Caijia, and [[Bai language|Bai]] have also been pointed out by Wu & Shen (2010).<ref>Wu Yunji, Shen Ruiqing [伍云姬、沈瑞清]. 2010. ''An Investigative Report of Waxianghua of Guzhang County, Xiangxi Prefecture'' [湘西古丈瓦乡话调查报告]. Shanghai Educational Press [上海教育出版社].</ref>


Qu & Tang (2017) show that Waxiang and Miao ([[Qo Xiong language|Qo Xiong]]) have had little mutual influence on each other.<ref>Qu Jianhui 瞿建慧; Tang Jiaxin 唐家新. 2017. 湘西乡话与湘西苗语. ''Minzu Yuwen'', vol. 2.</ref>
Qu & Tang (2017) show that Waxiang and Miao ([[Qo Xiong language|Qo Xiong]]) have had little mutual influence on each other.<ref>Qu Jianhui 瞿建慧; Tang Jiaxin 唐家新. 2017. Xiangxi Xianghua yu Xiangxi Miaoyu 湘西乡话与湘西苗语. ''Minzu Yuwen'', vol. 2.</ref>


==Distribution==
==Distribution==
Waxianghua is found in [[Luxi County, Hunan|Luxi]], [[Guzhang]] and [[Yongshun County|Yongshun]] counties in [[Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture]], [[Zhangjiajie]] prefecture-level city (in Dayong 大庸), and [[Chenxi]], [[Xupu]] and [[Yuanling]] counties in [[Huaihua]] prefecture-level city. Neighboring languages include [[Southwestern Mandarin]], [[Xiang Chinese]], [[Tujia language|Tujia]], [[Qo Xiong language|Qo Xiong]], and [[Pa-Hng language|Hm Nai]].
Waxianghua is found in [[Luxi County, Hunan|Luxi]], [[Guzhang]] and [[Yongshun County|Yongshun]] counties in [[Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture]], [[Zhangjiajie]] prefecture-level city (in Dayong {{Lang|zh|大庸}} ), and [[Chenxi]], [[Xupu]] and [[Yuanling]] counties in [[Huaihua]] prefecture-level city. Neighboring languages include [[Southwestern Mandarin]], [[Xiang Chinese]], [[Tujia language|Tujia]], [[Qo Xiong language|Qo Xiong]], and [[Pa-Hng language|Hm Nai]].


*"hua" means ''speech'' in Mandarin Chinese,
*{{Lang|cmn-latn|hua}} means 'speech' in Mandarin Chinese,
*"xiang" means ''rural'' in Mandarin Chinese
*{{Lang|cmn-latn|xiang}} means 'rural' in Mandarin Chinese
*"wa" means ''speech'' in Southern Chinese dialects.
*{{Lang|zh-latn|wa}} means 'speech' in Southern Chinese dialects.


The word Wa 瓦 is only a phonetic transcription.
The word {{Transliteration|wxa|Wa}} {{Lang|zh|瓦}} is only a phonetic transcription.


Wu & Shen (2010) report Waxianghua to be spoken in the following villages.
Wu & Shen (2010) report Waxianghua to be spoken in the following villages.
*[[Yuanling County]]: Qingshuiping 清水坪, Maxipu 麻溪铺, Taichang 太常, Wusu 乌宿, Liangshuijing 凉水井
*[[Yuanling County]]: Qingshuiping {{Lang|zh|清水坪}} , Maxipu {{Lang|zh|麻溪铺}} , Taichang {{Lang|zh|太常}} , Wusu {{Lang|zh|乌宿}} , Liangshuijing {{Lang|zh|凉水井}}
*[[Luxi County, Hunan|Luxi County]]: Basheping 八什坪, Shangbao 上堡, Liangjiatan 梁家谭, Baisha 白沙镇
*[[Luxi County, Hunan|Luxi County]]: Basheping {{Lang|zh|八什坪}} , Shangbao {{Lang|zh|上堡}} , Liangjiatan {{Lang|zh|梁家谭}} , Baisha {{Lang|zh|白沙镇}}
*[[Guzhang County]]: Linchang 林场 of Gaowangjie 高望界, Gaofeng 高峰 (in Taojin 淘金村, Beishuiping 北水坪, etc.), Yantouzhai 岩头寨, Shanzao 山枣, Yezhu 野竹, Hepeng 河蓬, Caotan 草潭
*[[Guzhang County]]: Linchang {{Lang|zh|林场}} of Gaowangjie {{Lang|zh|高望界}} , Gaofeng {{Lang|zh|高峰}} (in Taojin {{Lang|zh|淘金村}} , Beishuiping {{Lang|zh|北水坪}} , etc.), Yantouzhai {{Lang|zh|岩头寨}} , Shanzao {{Lang|zh|山枣}} , Yezhu {{Lang|zh|野竹}} , Hepeng {{Lang|zh|河蓬}} , Caotan {{Lang|zh|草潭}}
*[[Chenxi County]]: Tianwan 田湾, Banqiao 板桥, Chuanxiyi 船溪驿, Tanjiafang 谭家坊
*[[Chenxi County]]: Tianwan {{Lang|zh|田湾}} , Banqiao {{Lang|zh|板桥}} , Chuanxiyi {{Lang|zh|船溪驿}} , Tanjiafang {{Lang|zh|谭家坊}}
*[[Xupu County]]: Rangjiaxi 让家溪, Daweixi 大渭溪, Muxi 木溪
*[[Xupu County]]: Rangjiaxi {{Lang|zh|让家溪}} , Daweixi {{Lang|zh|大渭溪}} , Muxi {{Lang|zh|木溪}}
*[[Yongshun County]]: Limin 里明村, Zhenxi 镇溪, Xiaoxi 小溪 of Wangcun Township 王村镇
*[[Yongshun County]]: Limin {{Lang|zh|里明村}} , Zhenxi {{Lang|zh|镇溪}} , Xiaoxi {{Lang|zh|小溪}} of Wangcun Township {{Lang|zh|王村镇}}


Liubaohua 六保话, a dialect closely related to Waxianghua, is spoken in several villages in southeastern Guazhang County (including in Shaojitian Village 筲箕田村, Shanzao Township 山枣乡) and parts of Luxi County.<ref>Zou Xiaoling 邹晓玲. 2013. [http://www.nssd.org/articles/article_detail.aspx?id=47221164 湘西古丈县“六保话”的系属].</ref> Liubaohua is spoken in the following locations (Zou 2013).
Liubaohua {{Lang|zh|六保话}} , a dialect closely related to Waxianghua, is spoken in several villages in southeastern Guzhang County (including in Shaojitian Village {{Lang|zh|筲箕田村}}, Shanzao Township {{Lang|zh|山枣乡}} ) and parts of Luxi County.<ref>Zou, Xiaoling 邹晓玲. 2012. [https://skxb.jsu.edu.cn/EN/article/downloadArticleFile.do?attachType=PDF&id=40 Classification of "Siklehua" in Guzhang County in Western Hunan 湘西古丈县“六保话”的系属]. ''Journal of Jishou University (Social Science Edition)'' 吉首大学学报(社会科学版) 33(1).</ref> Liubaohua is spoken in the following locations (Zou 2013).
*[[Guzhang County]]
*[[Guzhang County]]
**Shanzao Township 山枣乡: Huoma 火麻村, Gaozhai 高寨村, Shaojitian 筲箕田村, Modao 磨刀村
**Shanzao Township {{Lang|zh|山枣乡}} : Huoma {{Lang|zh|火麻村}} , Gaozhai {{Lang|zh|高寨村}} , Shaojitian {{Lang|zh|筲箕田村}}, Modao {{Lang|zh|磨刀村}}
**Yantouzhai Township 岩头寨乡: Yinping 银坪村, Zimuping 梓木坪村, Wangouxi 碗沟溪村, etc.
**Yantouzhai Township {{Lang|zh|岩头寨乡}}: Yinping {{Lang|zh|银坪村}} , Zimuping {{Lang|zh|梓木坪村}}, Wangouxi {{Lang|zh|碗沟溪村}}, etc.
*[[Luxi County, Hunan|Luxi County]]: Basheping Township 八什坪乡
*[[Luxi County, Hunan|Luxi County]]: Basheping Township {{Lang|zh|八什坪乡}}
*[[Yuanling County]]: Maxipu Town 麻溪铺镇 and Shaojiwan Town 筲箕湾镇
*[[Yuanling County]]: Maxipu Town {{Lang|zh|麻溪铺镇}} and Shaojiwan Town {{Lang|zh|筲箕湾镇}}

The Nanshan dialect of Waxianghua ({{zh|s=南山乡话}}) is spoken in parts of [[Chengbu County]], Hunan and [[Longsheng County]], Guangxi by about 1,100 Waxiang people who had originally migrated from Yuanling County. Their villages include:<ref>Zheng, Yanxia [郑焱霞]; Peng, Jianguo [彭建国]. 2016. ''Hunan Chengbu Xuntou Xianghua yanjiu'' [湖南城步巡头乡话研究]. Hunan Normal University Press [湖南师范大学出版社].</ref>

*[[Chengbu County]], Hunan
**Xuntou Village 巡头村 and Mugua Village 木瓜村, both of which are in Wutuan Town 五团镇
**Juezhiping Village 蕨枝坪村, Nanshan Town 南山镇<ref>Zheng, Yanxia 郑焱霞. 2010. ''Xiang-Gui bianjie Nanshan Xianghua yanjiu'' 湘桂边界南山乡话研究. Doctoral dissertation. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学.</ref>
*[[Longsheng County]], Guangxi
**Ganjia Village 甘甲村, Weishan Township 伟江乡

== Phonology ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+Initials of Guzhang county Waxiang<ref name="report">[[伍云姬]]、[[沈瑞清]]合著《湘西古丈瓦乡话调查报告》</ref>
! colspan="2" |&nbsp;
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|{{IPAlink|m}} 尾
|{{IPAlink|n}} 大
|{{IPAlink|ɲ}} 银
|{{IPAlink|ŋ}} 硬
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Plosives]]
![[Voice (phonetics)|<small>voiced</small>]]
|{{IPAlink|b}} 婆
|{{IPAlink|d}} 代
|
|{{IPAlink|g}} 渠
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]] [[Aspiration (phonetics)|unaspirated]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|p}} 布
|{{IPAlink|t}} 台
|
|{{IPAlink|k}} 姑
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]] [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|pʰ}} 破
|{{IPAlink|tʰ}} 兔
|
|{{IPAlink|kʰ}} 口
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]
![[Voice (phonetics)|<small>voiced</small>]]
|{{IPAlink|v}} 有
|{{IPAlink|z}} 油
|{{IPAlink|ʑ}} 食
|{{IPAlink|ɣ}} 红
|-
![[Voice (phonetics)|<small>voiceless</small>]]
|
|{{IPAlink|s}} 生
|{{IPAlink|ɕ}} 四
|{{IPAlink|x}} 灰
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]
![[Voice (phonetics)|<small>voiced</small>]]
|
|{{IPAlink|ʣ}} 融
|{{IPAlink|dʑ}} 墙
|
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]] [[Aspiration (phonetics)|unaspirated]]</small>
|
|{{IPAlink|ʦ}} 纸
|{{IPAlink|tɕ}} 精
|
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]] [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|
|{{IPAlink|ʦʰ}} 初
|{{IPAlink|tɕʰ}} 轿
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]] [[Approximant consonant|approximants]]
|
|{{IPAlink|l}} 李
|
|{{IPA|Ø}} 矮
|}


==Conservative features==
==Conservative features==
Waxiang preserves a number of features of [[Old Chinese]] not found in most modern [[varieties of Chinese]], such as the initial *l- (which became a voiced dental stop in [[Middle Chinese]]):<ref>Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 109.</ref>
Waxiang preserves a number of features of [[Old Chinese]] not found in most modern [[varieties of Chinese]], such as the initial *l- (which became a voiced dental stop in [[Middle Chinese]]):<ref>Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 109.</ref>
* Guzhang li<sup>6</sup>, {{linktext|地}} OC ([[Reconstructions of Old Chinese#Baxter–Sagart (2014)|Baxter–Sagart]]) *lˤejs > MC ''dijH'' > [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] ''dì'' 'earth, ground'
* Guzhang li<sup>6</sup>, {{linktext|地}} OC ([[Reconstructions of Old Chinese#Baxter–Sagart (2014)|Baxter–Sagart]]) {{Lang|och-latn|*lˤejs}} > MC {{Lang|ltc-latn|dijH}} > [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] {{Lang|cmn-latn|dì}} 'earth, ground'
* Guzhang lu<sup>6</sup>, {{linktext|大}} OC *lˤats > MC ''dajH'' > Mandarin ''dà'' 'big'
* Guzhang lu<sup>6</sup>, {{linktext|大}} OC {{Lang|och-latn|*lˤats}} > MC {{Lang|ltc-latn|dajH}} > Mandarin {{Lang|cmn-latn|dà}} 'big'
* Guzhang li<sup>2</sup>, {{linktext|遲}} OC *lrəj > MC ''drij'' > Mandarin ''chí'' 'slow'
* Guzhang li<sup>2</sup>, {{linktext|遲}} OC {{Lang|och-latn|*lrəj}} > MC {{Lang|ltc-latn|drij}} > Mandarin {{Lang|cmn-latn|chí}} 'slow'
* Guzhang luʔ<sup>8</sup>, {{linktext|讀}} OC *C.lˤok > MC ''duwk'' > Mandarin ''dú'' 'read'
* Guzhang luʔ<sup>8</sup>, {{linktext|讀}} OC {{Lang|och-latn|*C.lˤok}} > MC {{Lang|ltc-latn|duwk}} > Mandarin {{Lang|cmn-latn|dú}} 'read'
Waxiang also has some cases of {{IPA|/z/}} for Old Chinese *r- (which became ''l-'' in Middle Chinese):<ref>Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 110.</ref>
Waxiang also has some cases of {{IPA|/z/}} for Old Chinese *r- (which became ''l-'' in Middle Chinese):<ref>Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 110.</ref>
* Guzhang za<sup>2</sup>, {{linktext|棃}} OC *C.rəj > MC ''lij'' > Mandarin ''lí'' 'pear tree, pear'
* Guzhang za<sup>2</sup>, {{linktext|棃}} OC {{Lang|och-latn|*C.rəj}} > MC {{Lang|ltc-latn|lij}} > Mandarin {{Lang|cmn-latn|lí}} 'pear tree, pear'
* Guzhang zɛ<sup>2</sup>, {{linktext|來}} OC *mə.rˤək > *rˤə > MC ''loj'' > Mandarin ''lái'' 'come'
* Guzhang zɛ<sup>2</sup>, {{linktext|來}} OC {{Lang|och-latn|*mə.rˤək}} > {{Lang|och-latn|*rˤə}} > MC {{Lang|ltc-latn|loj}} > Mandarin {{Lang|cmn-latn|lái}} 'come'
In a number of words, Waxiang and [[Proto-Min]] have [[affricate consonant|affricate]] initials where Middle Chinese has ''sy-'':<ref>Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 93.</ref>
In a number of words, Waxiang and [[Proto-Min]] have [[affricate consonant|affricate]] initials where Middle Chinese has ''sy-'':<ref>Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 93.</ref>
* Guzhang tsu<sup>3</sup>, pMin *tšyi<sup>B</sup>, {{linktext|水}} OC *s.turʔ > MC ''sywijX'' > Mandarin ''shuǐ'' 'water'
* Guzhang tsu<sup>3</sup>, pMin {{Lang|mis|*tšyi}}<sup>B</sup><!-- Proto-Min -->, {{linktext|水}} OC {{Lang|och-latn|*s.turʔ}} > MC {{Lang|ltc-latn|sywijX}} > Mandarin {{Lang|cmn-latn|shuǐ}} 'water'
* Guzhang tɕiəu<sup>1</sup>, pMin *tšy<sup>A</sup>, {{linktext|書}} OC *s-ta > MC ''syo'' > Mandarin ''shū'' 'writing'
* Guzhang tɕiəu<sup>1</sup>, pMin {{Lang|mis|*tšy}}<sup>A</sup><!-- Proto-Min -->, {{linktext|書}} OC {{Lang|och|*s-ta}} > MC {{Lang|ltc-latn|syo}} > Mandarin {{Lang|cmn-latn|shū}} 'writing'
In some words, Waxiang and Proto-Min have voiced affricates where Middle Chinese has ''y-'':<ref>Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 189.</ref>
In some words, Waxiang and Proto-Min have voiced affricates where Middle Chinese has ''y-'':<ref>Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 189.</ref>
* Guzhang dzoŋ<sup>3</sup>, pMin *-džioŋ<sup>B</sup>, {{linktext|癢}} OC *Cə.ɢaŋʔ > MC ''yangX'' > Mandarin ''yǎng'' 'itch'
* Guzhang dzoŋ<sup>3</sup>, pMin {{Lang|mis|*-džioŋ}}<sup>B</sup><!-- Proto-Min -->, {{linktext|癢}} OC {{Lang|och-latn|*Cə.ɢaŋʔ}} > MC {{Lang|ltc-latn|yangX}} > Mandarin {{Lang|cmn-latn|yǎng}} 'itch'


==Waxiang and Caijia==
==Waxiang and Caijia==
Sagart argues that Waxiang and [[Caijia language|Caijia]] together constitute the earliest branching of Chinese.
Sagart (2011) argues that Waxiang and [[Caijia language|Caijia]] together constitute the earliest branching of Chinese. However, Sagart later retracted this proposal, saying that he is no longer sure whether Waxiang and Caijia actually form a subgroup together.<ref name="Sagart2011"/>
Like Waxiang, Caijia preserves Old Chinese *l-, has a voiced fricative reflex of *r-, and retains the Old Chinese word {{linktext|字}} 'love', which has been replaced by {{linktext|愛}} in all other Chinese varieties.
Waxiang and Caijia also share two words not found in other Chinese varieties:<ref name="Sagart2011"/>
*'two': Caijia {{IPA|ta˥}}, Waxiang {{IPA|tso˥˧}}, from Old Chinese {{linktext|再}} *tsˤəs 'twice'
*'milk': Caijia {{IPA|mi˥}}, Waxiang {{IPA|mi˥}}, which Sagart suggests is a non-Sinitic word


Like Waxiang, Caijia preserves Old Chinese *l-, has a voiced fricative reflex of *r-, and retains the Old Chinese word {{linktext|字}} 'love', which has been replaced by {{linktext|愛}} in all other Chinese varieties. Waxiang and Caijia also share two words not found in other Chinese varieties:<ref name="Sagart2011"/>
==See also==
*'two': Caijia {{IPA|ta⁵⁵}}, Waxiang {{IPA|tso⁵³}}, from Old Chinese {{linktext|再}} {{Lang|och-latn|*tsˤəs}} 'twice'
*[[Badong Yao language]]
*'milk': Caijia {{IPA|mi⁵⁵}}, Waxiang {{IPA|mi⁵⁵}}, which Sagart suggests is a non-Sinitic word
*[[Yeheni language]]


==References==
==References==
Line 91: Line 174:


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Greater Bai comparative vocabulary list|Greater Bai comparative vocabulary list]]'''''}}
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Macro-Bai comparative vocabulary list|Macro-Bai comparative vocabulary list]]'''''}}
{{incubator|wxa}}
{{incubator|wxa}}
* Hilary Chappell (2012), [http://portal.cohass.ntu.edu.sg/ICSTLL45/Documents/ICSTLL45%20H.%20Chappell%20final.pdf "Typology of an isolated Sinitic language: Waxiang, a language of northwestern Hunan, China"] (presentation slides), keynote at ''45th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics''.
* [[Hilary Chappell]] (2012), [http://portal.cohass.ntu.edu.sg/ICSTLL45/Documents/ICSTLL45%20H.%20Chappell%20final.pdf "Typology of an isolated Sinitic language: Waxiang, a language of northwestern Hunan, China"] (presentation slides), keynote at ''45th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics''.
* {{cite journal |given1=Hilary |surname1=Chappell |given2=Alain |surname2=Peyraube |given3=Yunji |surname3=Wu |title=A comitative source for object markers in Sinitic languages: 跟 ''kai<sup>55</sup>'' in Waxiang and 共 ''kang<sup>7</sup>'' in Southern Min |journal=Journal of East Asian Linguistics |year=2011 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=291–338 |doi=10.1007/s10831-011-9078-z |pmid=24273384 |pmc=3837201 |ref=none }}
* {{cite journal |given1=Hilary |surname1=Chappell |given2=Alain |surname2=Peyraube |given3=Yunji |surname3=Wu |title=A comitative source for object markers in Sinitic languages: 跟 ''kai<sup>55</sup>'' in Waxiang and 共 ''kang<sup>7</sup>'' in Southern Min |journal=Journal of East Asian Linguistics |year=2011 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=291–338 |doi=10.1007/s10831-011-9078-z |pmid=24273384 |pmc=3837201 |ref=none }}
*Yang Wei [杨蔚]. 1999. ''A study of Yuanling Xianghua'' [沅陵乡话研究]. Changsha: Hunan Educational Press [湖南敎育出版社].
*Yang, Wei [杨蔚]. 1999. ''Yuanling Xianghua yanjiu'' [沅陵乡话研究]. Changsha: Hunan Educational Press [湖南敎育出版社].
*Yang Wei [杨蔚]. 2010. ''Xianghua comparative phonology'' [湘西乡话语音研究]. Guangzhou: Guangdong Press [广东省出版集团].
*Yang, Wei [杨蔚]. 2010. ''Xiangxi Xianghua yuyin yanjiu'' [湘西乡话语音研究]. Guangzhou: Guangdong Press [广东省出版集团].
*Zheng, Yanxia [郑焱霞]; Peng, Jianguo [彭建国]. 2016. ''Hunan Chengbu Xuntou Xianghua yanjiu'' [湖南城步巡头乡话研究]. Hunan Normal University Press [湖南师范大学出版社].
*Chen, Hui [陈晖]. 2016. ''Hunan Luxi Liangjiatan Xianghua yanjiu'' [湖南泸溪梁家潭乡话研究]. Hunan Normal University Press [湖南师范大学出版社].
*Chen, Hui [陈晖]. 2019. ''Hunan Luxi Xianghua'' [湖南泸溪乡话]. Beijing: The Commercial Press [商务印书馆]. {{ISBN|9787100179850}}.
*Deng, Jie [邓婕]. 2020. ''Xiangxi Xianghua jiechu yu yanbian yanjiu'' [湘西乡话的接触与演变研究]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
*Li, Jiaolei [李姣雷]. 2021. ''Xiangxi Xianghua yuyin cengci ji yanbian yanjiu'' [湘西乡话语音层次及演变研究] / ''Phonological Strata and Evolution of Xianghua Dialects of Western Xiang''. Beijing: [[The Commercial Press]].

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of China}}
{{Languages of China}}

Revision as of 17:33, 16 February 2024

Waxiang
Waxianghua, Xianghua, Wogang
瓦鄉話/瓦乡话
Wǎxiānghuà
Native toChina
Regionwestern Hunan
EthnicityWaxiang people
Native speakers
(300,000 cited 1995)[1]
Sino-Tibetan
Early forms
Language codes
ISO 639-3wxa
Glottologwaxi1236
Dialect map of Hunan.
Waxiang is dark blue on the map.

Waxiang (simplified Chinese: 瓦乡话; traditional Chinese: 瓦鄉話; pinyin: Wǎxiānghuà; ɕioŋ˥tsa˧) is a divergent variety of Chinese,[3][4] spoken by the Waxiang people, an unrecognized ethnic minority group in the northwestern part of Hunan province, China. Waxiang is a distinct language, and is very different from the surrounding Southwestern Mandarin, Xiang Chinese, and the Eastern Miao (Xong) languages.

Classification

Further information: Macro-Bai languages

As noted by Laurent Sagart (2011)[5] and others,[6][7][8] Waxiang appears to share some words with the Caijia language of western Guizhou. Sagart (2011) considers Caijia to be a sister of Waxiang. Currently, Waxiang is classified as a divergent Chinese variety rather than a non-Sinitic language.[3][4] Similarities among Old Chinese, Waxiang, Caijia, and Bai have also been pointed out by Wu & Shen (2010).[9]

Qu & Tang (2017) show that Waxiang and Miao (Qo Xiong) have had little mutual influence on each other.[10]

Distribution

Waxianghua is found in Luxi, Guzhang and Yongshun counties in Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Zhangjiajie prefecture-level city (in Dayong 大庸 ), and Chenxi, Xupu and Yuanling counties in Huaihua prefecture-level city. Neighboring languages include Southwestern Mandarin, Xiang Chinese, Tujia, Qo Xiong, and Hm Nai.

  • hua means 'speech' in Mandarin Chinese,
  • xiang means 'rural' in Mandarin Chinese
  • wa means 'speech' in Southern Chinese dialects.

The word Wa 瓦 is only a phonetic transcription.

Wu & Shen (2010) report Waxianghua to be spoken in the following villages.

  • Yuanling County: Qingshuiping 清水坪 , Maxipu 麻溪铺 , Taichang 太常 , Wusu 乌宿 , Liangshuijing 凉水井
  • Luxi County: Basheping 八什坪 , Shangbao 上堡 , Liangjiatan 梁家谭 , Baisha 白沙镇
  • Guzhang County: Linchang 林场 of Gaowangjie 高望界 , Gaofeng 高峰 (in Taojin 淘金村 , Beishuiping 北水坪 , etc.), Yantouzhai 岩头寨 , Shanzao 山枣 , Yezhu 野竹 , Hepeng 河蓬 , Caotan 草潭
  • Chenxi County: Tianwan 田湾 , Banqiao 板桥 , Chuanxiyi 船溪驿 , Tanjiafang 谭家坊
  • Xupu County: Rangjiaxi 让家溪 , Daweixi 大渭溪 , Muxi 木溪
  • Yongshun County: Limin 里明村 , Zhenxi 镇溪 , Xiaoxi 小溪 of Wangcun Township 王村镇

Liubaohua 六保话 , a dialect closely related to Waxianghua, is spoken in several villages in southeastern Guzhang County (including in Shaojitian Village 筲箕田村, Shanzao Township 山枣乡 ) and parts of Luxi County.[11] Liubaohua is spoken in the following locations (Zou 2013).

  • Guzhang County
    • Shanzao Township 山枣乡 : Huoma 火麻村 , Gaozhai 高寨村 , Shaojitian 筲箕田村, Modao 磨刀村
    • Yantouzhai Township 岩头寨乡: Yinping 银坪村 , Zimuping 梓木坪村, Wangouxi 碗沟溪村, etc.
  • Luxi County: Basheping Township 八什坪乡
  • Yuanling County: Maxipu Town 麻溪铺镇 and Shaojiwan Town 筲箕湾镇

The Nanshan dialect of Waxianghua (Chinese: 南山乡话) is spoken in parts of Chengbu County, Hunan and Longsheng County, Guangxi by about 1,100 Waxiang people who had originally migrated from Yuanling County. Their villages include:[12]

  • Chengbu County, Hunan
    • Xuntou Village 巡头村 and Mugua Village 木瓜村, both of which are in Wutuan Town 五团镇
    • Juezhiping Village 蕨枝坪村, Nanshan Town 南山镇[13]
  • Longsheng County, Guangxi
    • Ganjia Village 甘甲村, Weishan Township 伟江乡

Phonology

Initials of Guzhang county Waxiang[14]
  Labial Alveolar Alveolo-palatal Velar
Nasal m 尾 n 大 ɲ 银 ŋ 硬
Plosives voiced b 婆 d 代 g 渠
voiceless unaspirated p 布 t 台 k 姑
voiceless aspirated pʰ 破 tʰ 兔 kʰ 口
Fricatives voiced v 有 z 油 ʑ 食 ɣ 红
voiceless s 生 ɕ 四 x 灰
Affricates voiced ʣ 融 dʑ 墙
voiceless unaspirated ʦ 纸 tɕ 精
voiceless aspirated ʦʰ 初 tɕʰ 轿
Lateral approximants l 李 Ø 矮

Conservative features

Waxiang preserves a number of features of Old Chinese not found in most modern varieties of Chinese, such as the initial *l- (which became a voiced dental stop in Middle Chinese):[15]

  • Guzhang li6, 地 OC (Baxter–Sagart) *lˤejs > MC dijH > Mandarin dì 'earth, ground'
  • Guzhang lu6, 大 OC *lˤats > MC dajH > Mandarin dà 'big'
  • Guzhang li2, 遲 OC *lrəj > MC drij > Mandarin chí 'slow'
  • Guzhang luʔ8, 讀 OC *C.lˤok > MC duwk > Mandarin dú 'read'

Waxiang also has some cases of /z/ for Old Chinese *r- (which became l- in Middle Chinese):[16]

  • Guzhang za2, 棃 OC *C.rəj > MC lij > Mandarin lí 'pear tree, pear'
  • Guzhang zɛ2, 來 OC *mə.rˤək > *rˤə > MC loj > Mandarin lái 'come'

In a number of words, Waxiang and Proto-Min have affricate initials where Middle Chinese has sy-:[17]

  • Guzhang tsu3, pMin *tšyiB, 水 OC *s.turʔ > MC sywijX > Mandarin shuǐ 'water'
  • Guzhang tɕiəu1, pMin *tšyA, 書 OC *s-ta > MC syo > Mandarin shū 'writing'

In some words, Waxiang and Proto-Min have voiced affricates where Middle Chinese has y-:[18]

  • Guzhang dzoŋ3, pMin *-džioŋB, 癢 OC *Cə.ɢaŋʔ > MC yangX > Mandarin yǎng 'itch'

Waxiang and Caijia

Sagart (2011) argues that Waxiang and Caijia together constitute the earliest branching of Chinese. However, Sagart later retracted this proposal, saying that he is no longer sure whether Waxiang and Caijia actually form a subgroup together.[5]

Like Waxiang, Caijia preserves Old Chinese *l-, has a voiced fricative reflex of *r-, and retains the Old Chinese word 字 'love', which has been replaced by 愛 in all other Chinese varieties. Waxiang and Caijia also share two words not found in other Chinese varieties:[5]

  • 'two': Caijia ta⁵⁵, Waxiang tso⁵³, from Old Chinese 再 *tsˤəs 'twice'
  • 'milk': Caijia mi⁵⁵, Waxiang mi⁵⁵, which Sagart suggests is a non-Sinitic word

References

  1. ^ Waxiang at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (2023-07-10). "Glottolog 4.8 - Waxianghua". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. doi:10.5281/zenodo.7398962. Archived from the original on 2023-08-24. Retrieved 2023-10-13.
  3. ^ a b Baxter, William; Sagart, Laurent (2014). Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-19-994537-5.
  4. ^ a b Kurpaska, Maria (2010). Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects". Walter de Gruyter. p. 73. ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2.
  5. ^ a b c Sagart, Laurent. 2011. Classifying Chinese dialects/Sinitic languages on shared innovations. Talk given at Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l’Asie orientale, Norgent sur Marne.
  6. ^ de Sousa, Hilário. 2015. The Far Southern Sinitic Languages as part of Mainland Southeast Asia. In Enfield, N.J. & Comrie, Bernard (eds.), Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: The state of the art (Pacific Linguistics 649), 356–439. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. doi:10.1515/9781501501685-009.
  7. ^ 湘西瓦乡话“吃饭”【柔摸】读音来历考
  8. ^ 沅陵乡话（船溪）与白语蔡家话个别读音对比
  9. ^ Wu Yunji, Shen Ruiqing [伍云姬、沈瑞清]. 2010. An Investigative Report of Waxianghua of Guzhang County, Xiangxi Prefecture [湘西古丈瓦乡话调查报告]. Shanghai Educational Press [上海教育出版社].
  10. ^ Qu Jianhui 瞿建慧; Tang Jiaxin 唐家新. 2017. Xiangxi Xianghua yu Xiangxi Miaoyu 湘西乡话与湘西苗语. Minzu Yuwen, vol. 2.
  11. ^ Zou, Xiaoling 邹晓玲. 2012. Classification of "Siklehua" in Guzhang County in Western Hunan 湘西古丈县“六保话”的系属. Journal of Jishou University (Social Science Edition) 吉首大学学报(社会科学版) 33(1).
  12. ^ Zheng, Yanxia [郑焱霞]; Peng, Jianguo [彭建国]. 2016. Hunan Chengbu Xuntou Xianghua yanjiu [湖南城步巡头乡话研究]. Hunan Normal University Press [湖南师范大学出版社].
  13. ^ Zheng, Yanxia 郑焱霞. 2010. Xiang-Gui bianjie Nanshan Xianghua yanjiu 湘桂边界南山乡话研究. Doctoral dissertation. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学.
  14. ^ 伍云姬、沈瑞清合著《湘西古丈瓦乡话调查报告》
  15. ^ Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 109.
  16. ^ Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 110.
  17. ^ Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 93.
  18. ^ Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 189.

Further reading

Wiktionary has a Macro-Bai comparative vocabulary list
Waxiang Chinese test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
  • Hilary Chappell (2012), "Typology of an isolated Sinitic language: Waxiang, a language of northwestern Hunan, China" (presentation slides), keynote at 45th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics.
  • Chappell, Hilary; Peyraube, Alain; Wu, Yunji (2011). "A comitative source for object markers in Sinitic languages: 跟 kai55 in Waxiang and 共 kang7 in Southern Min". Journal of East Asian Linguistics. 20 (4): 291–338. doi:10.1007/s10831-011-9078-z. PMC 3837201. PMID 24273384.
  • Yang, Wei [杨蔚]. 1999. Yuanling Xianghua yanjiu [沅陵乡话研究]. Changsha: Hunan Educational Press [湖南敎育出版社].
  • Yang, Wei [杨蔚]. 2010. Xiangxi Xianghua yuyin yanjiu [湘西乡话语音研究]. Guangzhou: Guangdong Press [广东省出版集团].
  • Zheng, Yanxia [郑焱霞]; Peng, Jianguo [彭建国]. 2016. Hunan Chengbu Xuntou Xianghua yanjiu [湖南城步巡头乡话研究]. Hunan Normal University Press [湖南师范大学出版社].
  • Chen, Hui [陈晖]. 2016. Hunan Luxi Liangjiatan Xianghua yanjiu [湖南泸溪梁家潭乡话研究]. Hunan Normal University Press [湖南师范大学出版社].
  • Chen, Hui [陈晖]. 2019. Hunan Luxi Xianghua [湖南泸溪乡话]. Beijing: The Commercial Press [商务印书馆]. ISBN 9787100179850.
  • Deng, Jie [邓婕]. 2020. Xiangxi Xianghua jiechu yu yanbian yanjiu [湘西乡话的接触与演变研究]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
  • Li, Jiaolei [李姣雷]. 2021. Xiangxi Xianghua yuyin cengci ji yanbian yanjiu [湘西乡话语音层次及演变研究] / Phonological Strata and Evolution of Xianghua Dialects of Western Xiang. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
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