Agricola (Tacitus)
De vita Iulii Agricolae (short: [the] Agricola [des Tacitus]) is a biographical work of the Roman historiographer Tacitus from the year 98 AD about his father-in-law, general and governor in Britain Gnaeus Iulius Agricola (40 - 93).
The writing is considered Tacitus' first work and is one of his smaller writings ("Opera minora": Germania , Dialogus de oratoribus ) and is dated before the histories , since Tacitus the "15 years of silence", that is, the time of despotism under Domitian condemned and praised the subsequent reigns of Nervas and Trajan .
The complex work shows numerous elements of ancient literary traditions, styles and genres . Functionally, the reader encounters a (belated) laudatio funebris through the memory of the protagonist who died in 93 . Furthermore, forms of an enkomion , the emerging biography and the exitus literature (since the Neronian despotism) to glorify prominent victims of the respective tyrants - especially in Tacitus' focus under Domitian. The treatise after Agricola's years in office counteracts the annalistic work of history, as well as a geographical excursus (Britain) and the detailed description of battles based on Sallust in the classical tradition of ancient historiography since Herodotus .
Lore
The Agricola has only been handed down as an original from antiquity through the early medieval Codex Hersfeldensis ( H ). This was brought to Italy in the 15th century, where it was copied, divided and the remainder incorporated in the Codex Aesinas ( E ), which was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century (the humanistic part of Aesinas-Agricola bears the sigle e ). The text has been handed down in four manuscripts. Besides E these are:
- A codex Vaticanus latinus 3429 ; Late 15th century
- B codex Vaticanus latinus 4498 ; Late 15th century
- T codex Toletanus 49, 2 ; around 1475
For the stemma of the manuscripts, is widely recognized today that in E part of H is obtained and its humanistic shares direct copies of Agricola H is. T is an immediate copy of H and E together. A and B are closely related and come from an independent text tradition from a lost copy or copies of the original.
Structure and content
Tacitus deliberately designed the structure in such a way that the work can be divided into a total of five equal sections, which strive towards the climax of the battle of Mons Graupius and Agricola's conflict with Domitian. The author transparently draws a picture of the virtuous, good Roman commander, whose character traits that are necessary for this are highlighted in the phases of life described
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Proem 1–3
- Tacitus first recalls (1) the old tradition of commemorating great personalities - men - and depicting the work of a real virtus in order to counteract the general tendency of the time to forget. At the same time, he makes reference to the circumstances of the Domitian oppression (2) and attacks on the free spirit and freedom of speech through the “frenzy” (3) of the princeps. He makes this an example of the persecution of the well-deserved Senator Arulenus Rusticus because of his published praise for Paetus Thrasea and the subsequent execution in 93. Tacitus also mentions the associated book burnings on the forum . "Scilicet illo igne vocem populi Romani et libertatem senatus et conscientiam generis humani aboleri arbitrabantur, expulsis insuper sapientiae professoribus atque omni bona arte in exilium acta, ne quid usquam honestum occurreret." People, the freedom of the Senate and the conscience of the human race, after the teachers of wisdom had been cast out and every noble art had been driven into exile, so that nothing honorable would ever be presented. ") Looking back at the long time of the Faced with forced inner emigration, the author praises the new era under Nerva and the recovery of civil rights and the possibility of accomplishing what could not be done under the tyrant. Nonetheless, he laments the after-effects of the long period for society and the pernicious passivity with the retreat into the private sphere for the spirit, science and culture. In summary, Tacitus wants to set a point with the memory of his father-in-law as a departure into the new time and personally as an expression of his "loving attitude" towards it.
- Vita, governorship in Britain, geographical excursus 4–17
- First, Tacitus (4, 5) deals with Agricola's origins and youth. He describes the descent from the parental knightly senatorial old families, the moral virtues of the mother and the professional schooling of the young Agricola. He describes the character of the boy as he essentially brought success to the adult, especially for the military career, which from the Roman point of view was important. To this Tacitus goes directly over (5) and describes the first military experiences and the training as an officer in Britain under Gaius Suetonius Paulinus , which stimulated in him the urge to military fame and he proved himself there. After this (6) Tacitus turns to the time when Agricola, back in Rome, embarked on an administrative career, first as quaestor in the province of Asia under the principate Nero, then as tribune and praetor . In addition, getting married and starting a family. The upheavals with the fall of Nero (7) did not pass the family by; the mother becomes a murder victim by Otho , the paternal inheritance in Liguria plundered. Agricola went over to the party of Vespasians , under whose principle his career continued successfully, initially with the takeover of the 20th Legion and military command in Britain (8). This is followed by (9) an interlude as governor in Aquitaine, the ennobling to a patrician by Vespasian, the consulate and the assumption of supreme command over Britain - and the engagement and marriage of the daughter to Tacitus in 77. This is followed by the geo- and enthnographic excursion , (10–12) the report on the Roman expansion on the British island since Caesar (13, 14), the uprising of the Britannians and the uprising of the Boudicca , the succession of governorships (15, 16) and the military operations under Vespasian ( 17).
- Battle of Mons Graupius 18–38
- After Agricola took over command in AD 77, some administrative reforms in the administrative apparatus and (military) successful peacekeeping measures (18-20) and attempts by the native British population to Romanize, or Roman cultural property and way of life, followed in the first two years to naturalize (21) - which Tacitus bitingly commented that what some cultures call would actually mean bondage. Nevertheless, especially after his first successes, he describes his protagonist as definitely modest in terms of programming. In the following four years (22-28) further changing military actions of the conquest and their security are described, among other things against the Caledonians in Scotland and against the rebellion of a unit of Usipeter . Tacitus opened Agricola's last year of office (83 AD) with the death of his one-year-old son (29) - and thus marked the section and extensive climax of the work on the battle of Mons Graupinus - indicating that Agricola had salvation for his grief sought in the war. Scenically, Tacitus (briefly) describes the Roman mobilization and deployment of troops on water and on land, followed by extensive speeches by the British leader Calgacus and then by Agricolas (30–34). After the fronts have formed on the battlefield (35) - the Romans in the plain in front of the mountain, the Britons on its ascent - the battle is opened by a mutual attack with long-range weapons (36). Until Agricola sent auxiliaries from Batavian and Tungrian cohorts into hand-to-hand combat with the sword. Tacitus emphasizes the omnipresence of the Roman general who deliberately “leads” around the strategically challenging situation from the front and stands as “infantryman” in front of the standards and skilfully guides and initiates the Roman actions. Without this commitment by Agricola, the Roman success would be uncertain. The energetic use of the infantry with the continuous advancement on the hilltop using the cavalry brings success and leads to the haphazard escape of the Britons. Prisoners are not taken and at the end of the day at nightfall the enemy is defeated with numerous victims with relatively low Roman losses, as exemplified by the fallen, daring cavalry prefect Aulus Atticus.
- Domitian, Agricola's death 39-43
- Tacitus depicts the time after the governorship and the return to Rome and Agricola's retreat into private life until death (84 to 93 AD) as a conflict with the tyrant Domitian, whom he ultimately suspects to be responsible for death To have initiated a plot against the successful general out of base motives of envy and mistrust. Significantly, Tacitus (39) joins in by characterizing Domitian as a despot who reflexively disapproves of successful generals, since successes would only be due to the emperor. Tacitus inserts Domitian's own military “achievements” as a motive, which compelled him to buy slaves for a triumphal procession after a campaign against Teutons for lack of real prisoners, who were dressed up and hairdos as such. The fraud that had been exposed brought humiliating ridicule to Domitian. In any case, Agricola modestly reports the victory on Mons Graupinus to Domitian, he ensures an orderly transition to his successor and sets off on the journey back to Rome. There he deliberately arrives at night to avoid a stir, and also enters the “ Palatine ” to report to the emperor at night. In this situation Tacitus again describes him as a very level-headed, prudent man in front of the emperor. Domitian first pays Agricola the appropriate honors (40). Agricola does not find any other uses and offices that are in the room and therefore withdraws completely into private life, being careful of the imperial unpredictability. Tacitus tries again to ignore Domitian's deficits in character, although the empire is dependent on capable military leaders at that time, but it is Domitian who feels personally offended by the militarily more successful man (41). Its popularity with the people also means that Agricola ultimately falls out of favor with Domitian (42). Tacitus connects death with constant rumors that Domitian had Agricola poisoned, which he does not want to confirm, but does not consider impossible in his fundamental skepticism and rejection of the principle and the outspoken despotism of Domitian (43).
- Obituary, appreciation 44–46
- Tacitus concludes with a personal tribute to the dead, whom the "happy death" spared the excesses of Domitian's last years, but Domitian can no longer experience the redemption and awakening time under his successors.
criticism
The criticism of the work and the historicity of the portrayal of Tacitus relates primarily to the episode in the relationship between Agricola and Domitian. It is not really plausible, even for the son-in-law, that the latter should be responsible or jointly responsible for the death of Agricola (encouragement of "rumors"). Furthermore, it is unclear why Domitian did not entrust a relatively young officer with a new command and instead let him retire. In addition, there is the unclear and contradicting presentation of possible offices that Agricola could have assumed (41, 42) which then did not follow. In research, the question arises whether it was only due to Domitian or whether the achievements and the person of Agricola were simply assessed differently by the emperor - especially since Britain on the outermost edge of the empire was not the central focus of foreign policy and military concerns of the time . It is possible that the urge of the high officer corps for military glory was contrary to the well-founded defensive policy of the emperor and therefore Agricola was adopted into early retirement. Another aspect is that the intention of Tacitus in his writing was not to present an exact biography.
intention
In research, the intent of the "Agricola" is assessed differently. Above all, the political character is emphasized with the core as a representation of the upright (republican intended) Roman citizen against the excesses of the unwanted Principate. In addition, autobiographical motifs of Tacitus are assumed and, due to the family relationship, a private character, as well as that of an exculpation of the protagonist. Not what the author writes by and about his protagonist, but how is more decisive - a peculiarity encountered in Tacitus' oeuvre.
literature
- expenditure
- Josef Delz (Ed. Editor): P. Cornelius Tacitus. Libri qui Supersunt. Tom II. Fasc. 3. Agricola. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2010.
- Erich Koestermann (Ed.): Cornelius Tacitus, ii. 2: Germania. Agricola. Dialogus de Oratoribus. Teubner, Leipzig 1970.
- Michael Winterbottom , Robert Maxwell Ogilvie (Eds.): Cornelii Taciti Opera Minora. Clerdon, Oxford 1975.
- Transfers
- Anthony R. Birley : Tacitus. Agricola and Germany. Oxford University Press 1999, ISBN 0-19-283300-6 .
- Rudolf Till (Ed.): Tacitus. The life of Iulius Agricola, Latin-German. Berlin 1976.
- Research literature
- Jan-Wilhelm Beck : 'Germania' - 'Agricola': Two chapters on Tacitus' two small writings. Investigations into their intention and dating as well as the development of their author . (= Spudasmata 68). Olms, Hildesheim 1998, ISBN 3-12-645000-8 .
- Heinz Heubner : Commentary on the Agricola des Tacitus. V&R, Göttingen 1984, ISBN 3-525-25744-9 .
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Hildegard Temporini , Wolfgang Haase (Hrsg.): Rise and decline of the Roman world . Part II, Vol. 33.3. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1991, ISBN 978-3-11-012541-2 (for a fee from de Gruyter Online). In this:
- Robert Maxwell Ogilvie: An Interim Report on Tacitus' Agricola. Pp. 1714-1740.
- WS Hanson: Tacitus 'Agricola': An Archaeological and Historical Study. Pp. 1741-1784.
- Gerhard Petersmann : The 'Agricola' of Tacitus: An attempt at an interpretation. Pp. 1785-1806.
- Franz Römer : Critical problem and research report on the transmission of the Taciteic writings. Pp. 2299-2339
- Stephan Schmal: Tacitus. Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim 2005, ISBN 3-487-12884-5 .
- Reinhard Wolters : Tacitus. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 30, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-018385-4 , pp. 263-266.
