Gnaeus Iulius Agricola

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Statue of Gnaeus Iulius Agricola in Bath (19th century)

Gnaeus Iulius Agricola (born June 13, 40 in Forum Iulii (today Fréjus ), † August 23, 93 ) was a Gallo-Roman senator and general. He was a suffect consul in 77 and then governor of Britain for an unusually long time (until 84) . Agricola had started his military career between 58 and 62 AD in Britannia as a military tribune on the staff of governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus . After his return to Rome , Agricola 66 served as tribune and two years later as praetor . In 71 he became a legate of the Governor of Britain, Quintus Petilius Cerialis and commander of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix . When Cerialis left the province, Agricola was appointed governor of the province of Gallia Aquitania.

During the time of his stay in Britannia, he was able to temporarily extend Roman rule over the Forth-Clyde Line (the isthmus between today's cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh ). After his recall by Emperor Domitian , he withdrew into private life. The historian Tacitus , Agricola's son-in-law, described his life in the surviving, encomiastic biography De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae . Through this work, the main source of Agricola's deeds, Agricola's career and campaigns in Britain were also passed on.

Lineage and Early Career

The descendant of important Gallo-Roman families Gnaeus Iulius Agricola was born on June 13, 40 in Forum Iulii in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis as the son of Senator Lucius Iulius Graecinus and his wife Iulia Procilla . His two grandfathers were knightly rank and imperial procurators . Agricola's gentile name Iulius suggests that one of his ancestors, who either served as an officer under Gaius Iulius Caesar or Augustus , or emerged as a wealthy and respected native citizen of Forum Iulii, had received Roman citizenship . Graecinus wrote a work on viticulture and probably gave his son the Cognomen Agricola due to his affinity for agriculture . He was executed in late 39 or 40 on the orders of Emperor Caligula . Agricola, who became a half-orphan in this way, grew up in Massilia (now Marseille ) from early childhood . There his mother gave him a careful and proper upbringing. As is customary for a noble youth, he studied philosophy , among other things , but his mother imposed limits on him.

Agricola began his military career in Britain from 58 to 62 as a military tribune on the staff of the governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and in this position most likely helped to suppress the Boudicca uprising of 60/61. After Paulinus' recall in 62, he must have traveled to Rome with the governor . At that time he celebrated his wedding to Domitia Decidiana , the daughter of a senator who also came from Gallia Narbonensis . Soon after his marriage, around the year 63, he received male offspring from his successful marriage and was therefore allowed to apply for offices of the cursus honorum early in accordance with the Lex Papia Poppaea . The above-mentioned law allowed for the presence of children to take office before the otherwise necessary minimum age, namely for one year per child.

From the information given by Tacitus in Chapter 6 of his father-in-law's biography, it can be inferred that Agricola initially, as the Lex Papia Poppaea granted him, the office of Quaestor in 64 when he was 24 (and not at the age actually intended for it of 25 years). In this capacity he served in Asia under the proconsul Lucius Salvius Otho Titianus , the brother of the future emperor Otho . According to Tacitus, unlike his superior, he performed his office with great righteousness. Domitia Decidiana had traveled to Asia with her husband and gave birth to a daughter during his bursary, who would later become Tacitus' wife. So Agricola was now allowed to hold state offices two years before the legal deadline, even though his eldest son died in toddler age. In the year 65 and the following year 66, in which he served as tribune , he did not set any major public accents in order not to endanger himself under Nero's government. In 68 he became praetor and, since he was not given any jurisdiction, did not need to stand out. He organized, among other things, not too expensive games. After Nero's death (June 68) he was entrusted by the new Emperor Galba with an inventory of the temple treasures and the recovery of stolen sacred property, which he did faithfully; however, he could no longer bring back the temple treasures that had been stolen and melted down on Nero's orders.

At the beginning of the Four Emperor's Year (69), Agricola's mother was slain on her estate in Intimilium on the Ligurian coast by soldiers plundering Othos . Her country estate and a significant part of Agricola's paternal inheritance have been robbed. The badly hit Agricola arranged for his mother to be buried and immediately joined Vespasian when he entered the battle for the imperial throne. On the instructions of Gaius Licinius Mucianus , who had been temporarily in charge of the administration in Rome since the end of December 69 , he raised troops the following year. From Mucianus he was promoted to legate of Legio XX Valeria Victrix in Britain in the year 70 , where he initially served under the governor Marcus Vettius Bolanus . In this legate function he succeeded Marcus Roscius Coelius , who got into an argument with Bolanus' predecessor Marcus Trebellius Maximus and was supported by many soldiers in the year 69, until Trebellius finally had to flee and was replaced by Vettius Bolanus. Agricola was able to quickly restore the troops' sense of authority, which had been lost as a result, although he proceeded very moderately. But it was only under Bolanus' successor, the more offensively minded governor Quintus Petilius Cerialis , who had administered Britain since 71 , that Agricola found the opportunity to accomplish greater deeds. He was allowed to command relatively large army units independently and probably distinguished himself in battles against the brigands in northern England.

After his return from Britain in 73, Agricola was accepted by Vespasian among the patricians and in 74 appointed praetorical imperial governor of the province of Aquitaine , which promised the consulate . After less than three years of office activity, which he had planned very carefully, Agricola left the province again and probably became a suffect consul for a few months in 77 . While he was in this position, he engaged his about 13-year-old daughter to Tacitus, to whom she also married after the end of his consulate. Soon after the expiry of his consulate, he was appointed pontiff and, as successor to Sextus Iulius Frontinus, the new governor of Britain, which latter office he probably assumed in the second half of the year 77 (at the latest in the year 78) and held for a total of seven years.

Governor of Britain

First successful campaigns

The British historian Malcolm Todd was of the opinion that Tacitus had essentially not exaggerated or invented his father-in-law's achievements in Britain in his biography and that his account of Agricola's campaigns in Northern Britain and his town development program on the island was supported by archaeological evidence. So Todd saw Tacitus' description of Agricola's British governorship as relatively credible.

The governor Quintus Petilius Cerialis, who was in office in 71-74, had obviously finally subjugated the brigands settling in the north-east of England , with the result that the territory controlled by the Romans encompassed the entire flatland north to about the line Solway Firth - Tyne . Sextus Iulius Frontinus was then able to conquer the Silurians in the south of Wales . Shortly before Agricola's landing, however, the Ordovieans had almost completely destroyed an Ala that had been advanced into their tribal area, today's North Wales . Although Agricola did not arrive in Britain until the late summer of 77, he immediately succeeded in defeating the Ordovičians decisively and then with selected mounted auxiliary troops to conquer the island of Mona (now Anglesey ), the religious and national center of resistance of the Celts , which was fought over in Nero's time . He achieved the capture of the island by the fact that the auxiliary troops took off their heavy equipment and swam to the island, which is said to have impressed the local Celts so much according to Tacitus that they surrendered without a fight.

In the winter of 77/78 Agricola tried to prevent future wars between Romans and native tribes from breaking out and proved to be a capable organizer by, among other things, limiting the expenses for his own household, filling positions impartially with suitable candidates, the burden of grain and tax demands put an end to harassment that was more fairly distributed and practiced so far. In the summer of 78, by means of frequent troop demonstrations, without having to fight a major battle, he was able to bring many of the newly conquered but still independent civitates to the position of hostages and recognition of Roman rule. To ensure his success, he had extremely useful fortresses and garrisons built there. In the winter of 78/79 he effectively promoted the Romanization of the newly subjugated population, ensured that the sons of British nobles were brought up according to the Roman model, encouraged the construction of temples and comfortable houses, and brought new court rules into being; even wearing the Roman toga was now felt to be fashionable.

Campaigns in the years 78 - . 84 AD.

As a result, Agricola advanced further north than any Roman had ever before. In the year 79 he reached as far as the Tanaus (or Taus ; unknown location, perhaps the Firth of Tay ) and again built some solid forts, which were strategically particularly favorable. These forts were able to withstand long sieges, even in winter, because they held supplies for a whole year. In the summer of 80 that followed, Agricola set about safeguarding its conquests and laid a series of forts on an isthmus where the inlets known by Tacitus as Clota ( Firth of Clyde ) and Bodotria ( Firth of Forth ) cut deep into the island Defense works.

Campaigns in the years 80 -84 n. Chr.

The further advance northward took place in the year 81, when Agricola apparently advanced on the west coast of Britain over the Firth of Clyde victorious against hitherto unknown tribes. At that time he even thought of the conquest of Hibernia ( Ireland ) and for this purpose gathered troops on the coast just opposite this island. Achieving his goal seemed relatively easy to do, taking advantage of the internal quarrels of the Irish nobles. Therefore he had kindly received a chief who had had to flee from Ireland, so that he could be of use when the opportunity arose. In the absence of the necessary troops, he should not have crossed to Ireland after all, which some historians nevertheless assume and think of a trial or punitive expedition carried out on a small scale. Tacitus doesn't mention anything about it and the island remained outside the Roman sphere of influence.

Battle against the Caledonians

In 82 Agricola moved with his troops on the east coast of what is now Scotland to the regions north of the Firth of Forth and was accompanied by his fleet. The Scottish Caledonian tribe took up arms and threatened to invade the flank and rear of the advancing Roman army and attack their bases with numerically superior armies. As a counter-strategy, Agricola now divided his soldiers into three columns in order to march further north in this way. Thereupon the Caledonians attacked the marching camp of the Legio VIIII Hispana , characterized by Tacitus as the weakest British legion by Tacitus, with their entire military might , which had to give up a vexillation for the fight against the Chatti . The beleaguered Roman soldiers suffered heavy losses, but were rescued just in time by Agricola, who had rushed up with other armed forces, and the enemies were put to flight. The Caledonians took their wives and children to safe places and armed even more men, mostly youngsters, for the impending confrontation with the Romans.

Among other things, Inchtuthil , 15 km north of Perth , was found to be the site of a permanent legionary camp set up by Agricola during his campaign against the Caledonians.

A second son, born to Agricola that year (82), died to his father's grief the following year.

In the summer of 82 a cohort of Usipeter , dug up in Germania and relocated to Britain, mutinied , seized several boats and wanted to escape to their homeland on them. The fugitives sailed around Britain, but were shipwrecked and fell into the hands of the Suebi and Frisians , some of whom they sold as slaves.

During the renewed advance to the north, which Agricola undertook again with naval support in the year 83, he found the main forces of the Caledonians under their general Calgacus gathered at Mons Graupius . The exact position of this mountain, probably in the north-east of Scotland, is unknown. According to the representation of Tacitus , the Romans won the battle that followed, without the legions participating in the fighting, only through the use of their 8,000 auxiliary troops and 3,000 horsemen and four Alae reserves against the allegedly 30,000 strong Caledonian army, of which 10,000 men are said to have died. while the rest managed to escape. Tacitus gives the Roman casualties with only 360 fallen.

After the victorious battle, Agricola ended his campaign due to the approach of autumn and went with his army to the territory of the Boresti people , otherwise not mentioned in the ancient sources , who delivered him hostages. While he then intentionally made his way slowly with his land troops to the winter quarters, he first had his fleet circumnavigate the north of Britain, so that it was now finally proven that it really was an island.

Recall

Emperor Domitian had the successful governor decree a statue of honor and the ornamenta triumphalia through the Senate, but soon afterwards, probably at the beginning of the year 84, ordered him back to Rome. Tacitus claims that his father-in-law's great success secretly frightened Domitian. The emperor wanted Agricola to sell his recall by the prospect of transferring the important province of Syria .

More probable reasons for the recall of the governor than those given by Tacitus are, among other things, that Agricola had been in office for an unusually long time (seven years), that the expenses for military activities and the losses suffered in these wars are probably out of proportion to the profits and that, above all, some of the troops stationed in Britain were needed more urgently in these locations due to the increasing Germanic and Dacian attacks on the Rhine and Danube . As a result, Agricola's northernmost conquests could not be maintained and were cleared again, such as the Inchtuthil legionary camp. The fact that Domitian had ordered the victorious general back not for personal, but for objective reasons can also be seen from the fact that the militarily very expansive Trajan did not revise Domitian's decision to give up the northernmost Roman fortresses in Britain.

Later life and death

Agricola led a rather secluded life after the end of his British governorship. Tacitus offers the following version of his old age: Although he was honored by Domitian with the triumphal insignia , Agricola allegedly lost the trust of the emperor, characterized as tyrannical, due to his popularity, success and integrity, without this having been shown. While the Romans 86-88 against those of Decebalus listed Dacians and against the Quadi and Marcomanni fought unhappy, Agricola was the people - has been regarded as a suitable commander to turn this unpleasant situation - much to the annoyance of Domitian. When he was supposed to draw for the proconsulate of the provinces of Africa or Asia , he had renounced such a candidacy under secret pressure from the emperor. This wise reluctance would have diminished Domitian's envy and distrust of him.

When Agricola died on August 23, 1993 at the age of 53, rumors of his alleged poisoning, which Tacitus probably did not believe himself, spread. Due to an absence of several years, Tacitus and his wife were not allowed to be personally present on the deathbed of their father-in-law and father, who were probably different from natural causes. The deceased was deeply mourned by the people, and the emperor, who was heir to Agricola's wife and daughter in his will, had hypocritical sorrow, but was in truth pleased with the demise of the well-deserved former governor and general.

In contrast to Tacitus' version of the relationship between Agricola and Domitian, more recent research has indicated that even the Roman historian cannot completely hide the fact that Agricola Domitian always served diligently and was therefore in the highest favor with the emperor. The claim that Domitian honored and rewarded him outwardly, but secretly feared and hated him, obviously serves as an apology to justify that Agricola and his in the critical situation of the years 97/98, when the Agricola des Tacitus probably originated Son-in-law Tacitus had had such brilliant careers under the posthumously declared tyrant Domitian.

In Agricola, Tacitus characterizes his father-in-law as a pure, respectful man of ancient Roman virtue. As a philosophically educated person, he mostly acted wisely and moderately, if necessary politically restrained himself, as a judge pronounced fair judgments and preserved his authority as an official through seriousness, service and, if necessary, also through a certain severity.

swell

literature

Remarks

  1. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 4 and 44.
  2. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 4; Seneca , de beneficiis 2, 21, 5.
  3. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 4.
  4. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 5f.
  5. ↑ Digest 4, 4, 2.
  6. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 6.
  7. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 7; see. Histories 2, 13f.
  8. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 7; see. Histories 1, 60.
  9. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 8.
  10. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 9.
  11. ↑ Malcolm Todd, ODNB Vol. 30, p. 823.
  12. ^ Karl Christ , History of the Roman Empire , 3rd edition Munich 1995, ISBN 3-406-36316-4 , pp. 264f.
  13. ↑ The chronology of Agricola's campaigns given here follows the presentation by Alexander Gaheis (RE X, 1, Sp. 130-138).
  14. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 18.
  15. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 19ff.
  16. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 22f.
  17. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 24.
  18. ↑ This point of view is represented by Alexander Gaheis (RE X, 1, col. 135).
  19. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 25ff.
  20. ↑ Malcolm Todd, ODNB Vol. 30, p. 824; Alexander Gaheis, RE X, 1, col. 136.
  21. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 29.
  22. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 28; Cassius Dio 66, 20, 1f.
  23. ↑ If Agricola's assumption of his British governorship is dated to the year 78, the battle of Mons Graupius would not have taken place until 84.
  24. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 29-38.
  25. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 38; Cassius Dio 66, 20, 2.
  26. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 40, 1; Cassius Dio 66, 20, 3 (who incorrectly ascribes the award of the Agricola honors to Titus, who has long since died ).
  27. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 39f.
  28. ^ Karl Christ, History of the Roman Empire , p. 265; Alexander Gaheis, RE X, 1, Sp. 137f.
  29. ↑ The presidency of Asia had become vacant after the execution of the governor Gaius Vettulenus Civica Cerialis at that time (around the year 88) .
  30. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 41f .; see. Cassius Dio 66, 20, 3.
  31. ↑ Tacitus, Agricola 43ff .; Cassius Dio 66, 20, 3 (who makes it certain that Agricola was murdered on Domitian's orders).
  32. ↑ Alexander Gaheis: Iulius 49). In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume X, 1, Stuttgart 1918, Col. 141 f.
personal data
SURNAME Iulius Agricola, Gnaeus
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Agricola, Gnaeus Iulius
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Gallo-Roman senator and general
DATE OF BIRTH June 13th 40
PLACE OF BIRTH Fréjus (Forum Iulii)
DATE OF DEATH 23 August 93