Beothuk
The Beothuk or Pi'tow'ke ("upstream", from the Mi'kmaq: Pi'tow'ke waq na nin - "We come upstream from the land") were a presumably Algonquin-speaking Indian people on the island of Newfoundland off the east coast North America . The last of the Beothuk lived in the early 19th century and may have moved north to their Indian allies in Labrador , the Montagnais . They have been considered extinct since 1829.
Surname
The name Beothuk did not appear until the late 18th century, until words from their language were collected by captured Indians. Until then, and even after that time, the Beothuk were known only as the Red Indians because of their lavish use of red ocher . The spelling was different and included Bethuk, Beothuk, Beothuc, Beothuck, Beothick, Boeothuck, Boeothick, Boethick, Behathook and Beathook . The current spelling is Beothuk or Beothuck . Beothuk was her proper name; the ethnologist Albert S. Gatschet suspects connections with the term body or stomach .
Language and area of residence
The Beothuk's isolated residential area made their language different from their neighbors on the mainland. A distant relationship to the Algonquian dialect of the Naskapi and Montagnais in Québec and Labrador may have existed. Knowledge of their language is based on four short word collections taken from captured Beothuk. They comprise a total of more than 400 lexical terms. The quality and number of records do not allow any conclusions to be drawn about a standard orthography for Beothuk words.
Although the Beothuk once inhabited all of Newfoundland and had ties to Labrador as well, most of the information came from a group that stayed on the Exploits River during the 18th and early 19th centuries . These people inhabited the eastern end of Red Indian Lake during the fall and early winter, and dispersed on the lake's nearby eastern shore for the rest of the year. From the lake it was easy to get to the east coast and also to the south or west coast on various routes.
Relations with neighbors and Europeans
Before the arrival of the Europeans, the Beothuk were the masters of their island. They had a particular aversion to Eskimos, which they called Four Paws (Engl. Fourpaws ) mocked, and there was a traditional enmity between the Beothuk and the Labrador Inuit .
The Beothuk feared the Abenaki and Micmac from the west and the Montagnais from the north because of their fighting skills. Nevertheless they maintained friendly relations with the Montagnais (but only with them), from whom they took stone axes and other tools, and both groups visited each other. It is believed that the last surviving Beothuk may have joined the Montagnais in Labrador.
The arrival of the whites seriously disrupted the region's tribal balance when the Micmac were armed with firearms. The Beothuk avoided contact with the whites, which is why they were largely spared from European diseases, from which most other tribes were afflicted at regular intervals. Armed conflicts broke out in the late 17th century. The French offered bonuses for the heads of Beothuk because they were angry about the thefts. Near St. George's Bay , the Beothuk discovered a group of Micmac in possession of such Beothuk heads and killed them. The following war between the two tribes was able to end the Micmac victorious because of their firearms and forced the Beothuk to withdraw into the interior of the island. At the end of the 18th century, the Beothuk were only found in the southern and western parts of the island. The interior of the country was no longer safe either, because expeditions by the Europeans found them at Red Indian Lake. Then the trace of the last Beothuk is lost, which presumably left the island and moved to the Montagnais.
Culture
Livelihood
The climate on Newfoundland did not allow the cultivation of maize, so the Beothuk were semi-nomads and lived mainly from fishing and hunting. The Beothuk spent the summer in camps on the coast where they fished, hunted and gathered other food. In winter they moved inland, but there were also groups that lived on the coast all year round.
There weren't many land animals in Newfoundland, the most important of which was the caribou , which was shot with spears. The Beothuk also hunted birds and small animals that were caught with snares or shot with a bow and arrow. Seals and small whales were harpooned. Shellfish, edible roots, the insides of bark and bird eggs were also part of the diet of the Beothuk. There were also expeditions to Funk Island , some 60 kilometers northeast across the horizon. From there the canoes returned full of bird eggs that were hard-boiled for later consumption.
During the winter, the Beothuk men focused on killing the migratory caribou, which were caught within extensive wild fences on the Exploits River. The main work was processing and storing hundreds of carcasses. The meat was either frozen or smoked, wrapped in bark and stored in snow walls or huts. But game was only available in limited numbers. In later years the Beothuk could no longer reach the coast, which was probably one of the reasons for leaving the island. The reason for the extinction of the Beothuk was less disease and war, but rather the lack of food.
Home decor
The Beothuk lived in wigwams , the walls of which were made of poles and covered with overlapping birch bark. An opening in the top of the conical housing ensured that the smoke was extracted from the central fireplace. There were also larger square structures that were used in the summer months. Dried food was stored on shelves in the upper area of the wigwam. Caribou skins were used to close the entrances. The sleeping places in the pits in the wigwam floor were typical. These wigwams could be inhabited by 12 to 15 people. There were warehouses for storing food, which were either conical or covered with a ridge roof. In the interior, racks were found for drying salmon or for storing caribou leg bones, which contained edible bone marrow.
Steam baths were taken in special huts made up of a semicircular frame covered with furs. To generate steam, water was poured onto large hot stones.
When a member of the tribe died, a wooden container or coffin was placed on a low platform. There were also special huts in which the deceased was laid on the ground. The Beothuk buried their dead in caves and crevices, in the ground or under a pile of stones, the corpse could be buried in an outstretched, hunched or even sitting position.
Clothing and ornaments
In contemporary reports it is noticeable that there is always talk of the generous use of red ocher. The Beothuk mixed the red powder with fish oil or fat and literally smeared the substance over everything. They dyed the hair, the face, the body and also the clothing and equipment, so that this custom served whites as a distinguishing feature from other tribes. The term red skin comes from this and was later transferred to all Indians.
Often the Beothuk were clad in a rectangular shaped cloak made of two caribou skins sewn together. Small children were carried in a sling on the back of the women. In order to be able to shoot better with bows and arrows, the men on the hunt were unclothed on the right shoulder. Most of the clothing was made of leather, such as leggings , gloves, hats and moccasins . Often the fur was carried inwards while the outside was oiled and smeared with red ocher.
Means of transportation
In winter, the Beothuk wore snowshoes and used sledges to transport hunted game and occasionally people. The cut game was packed in birch bark, transported and stored. At the warehouses on the Exploits River, simple rafts made of tree trunks were found, which had also been used to transport the meat packages weighing up to 90 kg.
Birch bark canoes were the Beothuk's most important means of transport, both in coastal waters and on inland lakes and rivers. There were so-called portages when the canoes had to be carried over a stretch of land. The Beothuk canoes were up to 20 feet long, relatively wide, and made of birch bark. For trips on the open sea they were provided with heavy stones as ballast and with a keel. Paddles or sometimes even sails were used to get around. Beothuk were able seamen who sailed from Newfoundland to Funk Island and also crossed the Strait of Belle Isle . Other canoes were probably used on inland waters, in which elastic caribou leather was used for the outer lining instead of bark.
Material culture
Although the Beothuk avoided contact with the Europeans, they were very interested in their goods - so they soon replaced traditional materials with metal. But they did not trade with the whites - all metal in their possession had been stolen by Europeans. Most Newfoundland archaeological sites indicate the existence of European goods, such as sails, axes and knives, but there were no firearms. Hundreds of old nails turned into arrowheads were found in their former camps.
The traditional weapons for hunting and warfare consisted of bows and arrows, spears, axes, knives and clubs. The blades and arrowheads were made of flint, flint, or bone. The bows were about 5 feet long and made of ash or pine; the pine arrows were about 3 feet long and feathered at the ends. The Beothuk hunted seals with harpoons that were 12 feet (3.66 m) long.
The Beothuk made almost all everyday objects from birch and spruce bark, such as dishes for eating and drinking, containers, buckets and vessels for cooking, but also for house and canoe walls. Animal tendons and flexible roots formed the material for sewing, tying, and lacing. Blankets and clothing were made of leather. Combs were carved from caribou antlers and pendants from bones.
There were intricately carved jewelry pendants made of bones, which were decorated with geometric patterns. Shanawdithit , a Beothuk woman captured by English settlers in 1823, demonstrated this skill on combs made of horn and also used her teeth to engrave patterns of animals, figures and flowers in birch bark. She obviously had a particular talent for drawing and easily communicated with a scientist about historical and cultural information about her people. Shanawdithit died in 1829 and is very popular with the Newfoundlands today. In 1999, the readers of The Telegram voted her "Most Notable Native American" for the past 1,000 years.
Social organization
Beothuk society was presumably patriarchal . There was apparently no division of labor for men and women except for hunting, which was a purely male task.
Marriage was monogamous and patrilocal, and weddings were celebrated extensively, sometimes for 24 hours or more. Shanawdithit's report also provided information that adulterers were publicly burned and that moral offenses were severely punished. Often Beothuk returning from captivity were punished with death because they had long contact with Europeans.
A group of the Beothuk that was observed on the Exploits River in 1811 was divided into three separate camps, each consisting of three or more wigwams and inhabited by a maximum of three families. In the event of danger, they could quickly unite to fight together. The Beothuk were feared, daring warriors and were often only defeated by the superior firearms of their opponents. In enemy clashes they showed cold-bloodedness but also generosity towards their enemies, but were ruthless in acts of revenge. The heads of enemy victims were put on stakes and the group danced around them singing. The symbol for peace consisted of a piece of fur or a branch of spruce.
Personal possessions, especially weapons and food supplies, were known to the Beothuk. They were well aware that they were doing wrong by stealing from the colonists who lived in their neighborhood.
After the death of a Beothuk, the body was carefully wrapped in birch bark and taken to a burial site on the coast. It was customary to bury the dead with grave goods. For men, these consisted of personal belongings, weapons and equipment, but also of canoe models and small carved human figures. According to Shanawdithit, these should represent the deceased. Women were only buried in their own clothes. When the spouse died, the survivor underwent a ritual bath. Medical steam baths, accompanied by ritual prayers, were used to cure illnesses.
religion
A common belief of the Beothuk was that there was a bond between humans and animals. Every animal possessed a spirit whose favor had to be acquired, otherwise the hunter would not be able to kill any more animal of this kind. For example, the bones of a beaver were carefully cleaned and thrown back into the water. The same was done with the teeth of moose and caribou or the claws of bears, which were kept as talismans and were supposed to appease the spirits of the animals. The Beothuk believed in the Great Spirit or Gitche Manitou, the creator of all life, and in supernatural beings.
history
Newfoundland has been inhabited by humans for over 9,000 years, so the Beothuk weren't the first to come to the island around 200 AD. According to legend, the Beothuk jumped to the ground from an arrow or hanging from an arrow. Their lore suggests close ties to Labrador, possibly their country of origin. At the end of the 10th century, the Vikings reached Newfoundland and established a settlement there at L'Anse aux Meadows . It was unusually warm during this time. When the climate got colder again in the 11th century, the Vikings disappeared and the next Europeans didn't come until 500 years later.
From Jacques Cartier (1534), the earliest reliable historical records date. There are other accounts of the native population of Newfoundland, for example by John Cabot and Gaspar de Côrte-Real from 1497 and 1500 respectively, but they do not mention the use of red ocher, the typical feature of the Beothuk.
The first encounters between Beothuk and whites were friendly, but that soon changed when the British and French began settlement. Conflicts of interest in hunting and inshore fishing as well as continued thefts by Beothuk led to growing tensions. The Micmac from Cape Breton visited Newfoundland every summer for its rich fishing grounds. Relations between Beothuk and Micmac had always been peaceful. But in 1613 a French fisherman shot and killed a young Beothuk who was trying to steal from him. The Beothuk then killed 37 French in revenge. The Micmac were allies of the French, were equipped with firearms by them and instigated to war against the Beothuk. Of course the Beothuk were defeated, had to leave their food sources on the coast and fled into the interior of the island. Although the French suspended head bonuses, there is no evidence that Micmac warriors actually delivered heads from killed Beothuk.
The wars in New England and Canada between the French, English, and Native Americans only marginally affected Newfoundland. The white settlements stretched along the coasts, and the inhabitants largely avoided penetrating the interior of the island for fear of the Beothuk. The Beothuk, for their part, sneaked into the settlements at night to steal the coveted metal. White hunters, trappers, and fishermen found it necessary to kill all Beothuk to protect their property. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Beothuk were pushed back to the southeastern part of the island. They fought back by raiding the whites to get European tools and equipment, while the whites' attacks were essentially aimed at killing the Beothuk. Various reports from the 18th century of skirmishes with Beothuk boast ten and even hundreds of murders. But the Beothuk's greatest enemy was hunger. By 1768 there were fewer than 400 dependents, most of whom lived on the Exploits River.
A few lone Beothuk women and children were captured in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The most famous of them were Demasduit (English name: Mary March ) and Shanawdithit (Nancy April) , who were caught in 1819 and 1823.
In 1810 the British government issued an official proclamation not to pursue the Beothuk any longer. But for years, Beothuk were killed by British settlers. Slowly a change to a friendlier attitude took hold in public opinion. But it was too late, in 1823 the Beothuk tribe had melted to a handful of people. With the remains of the Beothuk, which then left the Exploits River, no successful connection could be established. In 1827, despite a careful search by the Beothuck Institution, not a single Beothuk could be found. The last of the relatives may have moved north to their former allies in Labrador. Shanawdithit died in 1829, and it is very likely that there have been no Beothuk in Newfoundland since that year.
Beothuk culture and history are illustrated at the Mary March Provincial Museum in Grand Falls-Windsor and Boyd's Cove Beothuk Site Museum in Boyd's Cove . From the latter museum, an educational trail leads to a small plain where the remains of a Beothuk housing estate from the 17th century were uncovered at the beginning of the 1980s. You can see eleven shallow pits over which tents were erected.
heraldry
On the coat of arms of Newfoundland and Labrador , two members of the Beothuk tribe armed with bows and arrows are depicted as shield holders .
swell
- Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians . Vol. 15. Northeast . Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC 1978 ISBN 0-16-004575-4
- dickshovel.com
See also
literature
- Donald H. Jr. Holly: A Historiography of an Ahistoricity. On the Beothuk Indians. In: History and Anthropology 14, 2003, 2, ISSN 0891-9348 , pp. 127-140.
- James P. Howley: The Beothucks or Red Indians . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1918 (Reprint: Prospero Books, Toronto 2000, ISBN 1-55267-139-9 ).
- Ingeborg Marshall: The Beothuk . The Newfoundland Historical Society, 2001 (Reprint: Breakwater Books, St. John's 2009, ISBN 978-1-55081-258-9 ).
- Ralph T. Pastore: Shanawdithit's People. The Archeology of the Beothuks . Breakwater Books, St. John's 1992. ISBN 0-929048-02-4 .
- Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians . Volume 15: Northeast . Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC 1978, ISBN 0-16-004575-4 .
- Keith John Winter: Shananditti. The Last of the Beothuks . JJ Douglas Ltd., North Vancouver 1975, ISBN 0-88894-086-6 .
Web links
- Lee Sultzman: Beothuk History. In: dickshovel.com. December 14, 2007 (English).
- The Beothuks of Newfoundland. In: visitnewfoundland.ca. January 5, 2013, archived from the original on February 20, 2015 .
- Ralph T. Pastore: The Beothuks. In: Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Web Site. 1997 (English).
- Beothuk Language (Beothuck, Skraeling, Red Indian). In: Native Languages of the Americas website. October 16, 2017(English).
- WE Cormack: Report of Mr WE Cormack's Journey in search of the Red Indians in Newfoundland. In: Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. (English, published on gutenberg.org on October 14, 2004).
Individual evidence
- ^ Rita Joe: Song of Rita Joe: Autobiography of a Mi'kmaq Poet, 130, University of Nebraska Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0803275942
- ↑ Andrew Hampstead: Atlantic Canada, p. 358. Berkeley CA 2012
