Abenaki

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Abenaki man with traditional clothing

The Abenaki or Abnaki (also Aberginier , Wabanaki or Wippanap ) belong to the Eastern Algonquin tribes and are divided into two large regional dialect and tribal groups - the Eastern Abenaki and the Western Abenaki .

The Abenaki (Abnaki) were members of the Wabanaki Confederation (often incorrectly the Abenaki Confederation ), a politico-military alliance of five culturally and linguistically related Indian peoples against the militarily strong Iroquois League in the northeastern United States and neighboring Canada.

Their tribal area called the allied tribes as well as many neighboring Algonquin tribes Wabanaki ( land of dawn / twilight , ie land in the east ); it comprised areas of the historic Acadia (today's Canadian maritime provinces of Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , the south of the Gaspésie Peninsula and Québec south of the Saint Lawrence River ) in Canada and parts of New England (today's US states of Maine , New Hampshire , Vermont and Massachusetts ) in the northeastern United States .

The Abenaki land, which they called Ndakinna (“Our Land”), comprised the southern areas of the Wabanaki Confederation.

Abenaki and Wabanaki

Origin of the name Abenaki

However, the Abenaki referred to themselves as Alnôbak ("True People", "Real People") or Alnanbal ("People"). In order to distinguish themselves from the Algonquin peoples who lived further inland in the west, they also called themselves Wôbanuok , which roughly means "the eastern" or "those living in the east".

The earliest application of the term Abenaki in its various spellings ( Abnaki , Aberginier, Wabanaki or Wippanap ) appears to be French. Samuel de Champlain , the Jesuit reports and other sources used the term after around 1630 and abandoned the earlier expression Étchemins , with which the Maliseet (also Malicite , self-denominated: Wolastoqiyik or Welastekwíyek ) and Passamaquoddy ( Peskotomuhkati , Pestomuhkati or Pestemohkatíyek ) were designated. Both peoples are also often referred to as Maritime Abenaki , since the tribal areas of the Maliseet and Passamaquoddy comprised parts of the Canadian Maritimes (also Maritime provinces or simply the Maritimes ).

The name Abenaki (or Abnaki) derives from Wôbanakiak or Wâbŭna'ki ("people who live in the east" or "people of the sunrise"; from wôban , wâbŭn - "east", "sunrise", a'ki - " Earth ”,“ Land ”), the Abenaki name for the Wabanaki Confederation of which they were a member.

Many later writers summarized the tribal group of the Western Abenaki under the term Openango (different spellings), which probably first referred to the Penacook (also Pennacook, Penikoke ). The Penacook were a once powerful confederation in the early colonial times, who often viewed the northern Western Abenaki as enemies - but were considered Western Abenaki after severe epidemics from the 18th century onwards.

English writers of the 17th century commonly called the Eastern Abenaki simply Eastern Indians ("Eastern Indians"). In the 19th century the term Tarrantiner , an English name for the Mi'kmaq (also Míkmaq, Micmac or Mic-Mac ) from the 17th century, was taken up again (as Tarratine) and mistakenly for those hostile in the so-called Tarrantiner War Penobscot (also Panawahpskek or Penawapskewi ) used by the Eastern Abenaki.

Differentiation between Abenaki and Wabanaki

The term Abenaki (or Abnaki) is often incorrectly used synonymously for Wabanaki - however, the Abenaki were only a member of the Wabanaki Confederation. In addition, it is often not possible to differentiate between the confederation and the individual members of it, as the tribes often referred to themselves as Wabanaki ( Wabenaki, Wobanaki, Wobenaki, Wapanahki ), depending on the dialect , in order to emphasize their political and cultural affinity, especially towards strangers. Because of the incorrect use of the word Abenaki for Wabanaki , all Abenaki along with the Penobscot were often called Western Wabanaki , while the Mi'kmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy were called Eastern Wabanaki .

The name Wabanaki is sometimes used collectively for all members of the confederation - so that an identification of the individual tribes is usually only possible in a geographical and historical context (if at all).

Abenaki groups and tribes

"Abenaki" tribes

Often a large number of individual tribes or even former enemies (such as the Penacook Confederation) are referred to as Abenaki without distinction, which in turn is due to the names Abenaki and Wabanaki , which are often incorrectly used synonymously (only the best known are listed here):

  • Arosaguntacook ( Arsikantegou , Arsikanteg , Androscoggin , Alessikantek-eyak , lived around Umbagog Lake and on the Androscoggin River and its tributaries; the residential area extended over southwest Maine and to northeast New Hampshire and along the Rivière Saint-François ( engl .: St. Francis River) in Québec - therefore often called St. Francis River Abenakis )
  • Cowasuck ( Cahass , Coos , Coosuc , Koes , Cowass , Cohassiac , lived along the upper Connecticut River with the main village Cowasuck - "place of the pines", today's Newbury, in New Hampshire and Vermont)
  • Kennebec ( Kinipek , Kennebeck , Kanibesinnoak , Caniba - "Big , Calm Water", later called Norridgewock , from Narantsouuk , lived along the Kennebec River in northeast Maine)
    • Amaseconti ( Anmissoukanti , lived along the Sandy River and between the upper Kennebec and Androscoggin Rivers in western Maine)
    • Wawenock ( Wewenoc , Ouanwiak , Wawnock - "people of the bay", whose descendants now live in Wôlinak in the urban area of Bécancour in Québec, derived from the Penobscot word Wawinak - "oval, round island")
  • Kwupahag (also Kwapahag )
  • Maliseet (Wolastoqiyik) (from the Mi'kmaq -Language: from Amalecite , Malecite , Malicite - "Slow spokesman," "Broken speaking people", by the French Etchemins called Eigenbez .: Wolastoqiyik or Welastekwíyek - "people along the Welàstekw, ie Saint John River "in New Brunswick and Maine as well as in neighboring Québec)
  • Medoctec ( Medoktek , Madawamkeetook , also Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic , was located at the confluence of the Eel River and Saint John River , in New Brunswick, was the main fortified settlement of the Maliseet and their most important trading post until the middle of the 18th century)
  • Mi'kmaq (also Míkmaq , Micmac or Mic-Mac - "allies", but is controversial, lived in the maritime provinces of Canada, namely Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, parts of New Brunswick and the Gaspé Peninsula in Québec)
  • Missisquoi (also Missiassik , Mazipskoik , Misiskuoi , Missique or Missico - "place of flint"), their main village Missisquoi , today's Swanton, was on Lake Champlain, lived along the Missisquoi River and on the east bank of Lake Champlain in northern Vermont and in the south of Québec, also known as Sokoki )
  • Narakamigou ( Naurakamig , Rocameca , lived along the upper Androscoggin River, near Canton, Maine)
  • Passamaquoddy (Pestomuhkati) ( Peskotomuhkati , Pestomuhkati or Pestemohkatíyek - "people at the place where you denys further grant Pollock" by the French Etchemins called, lived in the catchment area of the St. Croix River formerly known as (: Passamaquoddy River ) in northeastern Maine, USA, and New Brunswick, Canada)
  • Penacook Confederation (also known as Merrimack and Pawtucket , lived in the Merrimack River valley in New Hampshire and Massachusetts, as well as in southern Maine, those along the lower Merrimack River Valley were Pawtucket (Pentucket) , those on middle Merrimack Penacook (Pennacook) as well those in the area of ​​today's Manchester, NH, often called Amoskeag )
    • Accominta (dt. "Coastline", lived in the area of York County in southwest Maine)
    • Agawam ( Angoam , Aggawom , their main village of the same name was near present-day Ipswich on the Ipswich River, MA, their tribal area Wonnesquamsauke ( wonne - "pleasant", asquam - "water" and auke - "place") extended in the east along the north coast of Massachusetts, from Cape Ann to the Merrimack River and inland to North Andover, south of the Merrimack River and Shawsheen River , and Middleton, along the Ipswich River and in the southwest to the Danvers River, which bordered the Naumkeag )
    • Amoskeag ( Amoskeay , abbreviated from Namoskeag - "good place to fish", their main village Amoskeag , today's Manchester , was at the waterfalls of Amoskeag on the middle Merrimack River in south New Hampshire)
    • Coosuc (on the Connecticut River, between the Upper and Lower Ammonoosuc Rivers)
    • Muanbissek ( Maunbisek , lived along the Merrimack River in New Hampshire)
    • Nashaway ( Nashua or Weshacumam - "river with a pebbled bottom"), lived on the upper reaches of the Nashua River in northern Worcester County , near the modern cities of Leominster , Lancaster , Sterling and others in the vicinity of Mount Wachusett , their main settlement was Waushacum (today: Sterling); their territory was bounded downstream by the Nashua River (to the north) by the powerful Pennacook Confederation , to the east by tribes related to the Massachusett, to the south by other Nipmuck groups, and to the west by the Connecticut River and the Pocomtuc Confederation , Although today mostly viewed as a large group (or Sachemtum) of the Nipmuck (Nipmuc) , but politically mostly part of the Penacook and / or the Massachusett Confederation, later they joined the Western Abenaki and thus the Wabanaki Confederation )
    • Naumkeag ( Naimkeak , Namaoskeag , Namaske , their main village Naumkeag ("fish reason", from namaas - "fish" and ki - "place"), "reason", was near Salem at the mouth of the Naumkeag River to the Mystic River in Northeast Massachusetts, originally a powerful subject matter of the Massachusett Confederation, they later joined the Penacook Confederation in order to later join the Wabanaki Confederation as part of the Western Abenaki)
    • Newichawanoc ( Newichawawock , lived on the Upper Piscataqua and Salmon Falls Rivers in Maine and New Hampshire)
    • Ossipee (lived along the banks of Ossipee Lake and along the Ossipee River in Ossipee County , east New Hampshire)
    • Pennacook ( Pentucket , Pawtucket , two main villages: Pawtuckett , today Lowell Falls, was on the lower Merrimack north of the confluence of the Concord River and Penacook , today Concord, on the middle Merrimack, lived on both sides of the Merrimack River, north to the confluence of the Contoocook River, south to the Charles River near Boston , Massachusetts)
    • Piscataqua ( Pascataway , Pinataqua , Piscataway , lived on the Piscataqua River near Dover in southeast New Hampshire)
    • Souhegan ( Souheyan , lived on the Souhegan River near Amherst, which was previously called Souhegan)
    • Sqamscot ( Squam , Squamsauke , Wonnesquam , Msquamskek , lived near Exeter at the confluence of the Exeter River in the Squamscott River (from Msquam-s-kook or Msquamskek - "place of the salmon" or "place of the great water") in the southeast of New Hampshire)
    • Wachuset ( Wachusett , on the upper Nashua River near Mount Wachusett near Princeton in northern Massachusetts, a tribe of the Nashaway Sachemtums, who today are linguistically and ethnically part of the Nipmuck , mostly part of the Penacook and / or Massachusett Confederation, later Part of the Western Abenaki)
    • Wamesit (also Pawtucket , on the south bank of the Merrimack River , below the confluence of the Concord River)
    • Weshacum (main village: Waushacum , near present-day Sterling near Mount Wachusett in northern Massachusetts, a tribe of the Nashaway Sachemtums, who are now part of the Nipmuck both linguistically and ethnically , mostly part of the Penacook and / or Massachusett Confederation, later part of the Western Abenaki)
    • Winnecowet ( Winnicunnet , in Rockingham County in southern New Hampshire)
    • Winnepesaukee ( Wioninebesek , Winninebesakik - "region of the land around the lakes", lived on the shores of Lake Winnipesaukee in New Hampshire)
  • Penobscot (Penawapskewi) ( Penawapskewi , from Panawahpskek - "The place where the rocks open", lived on both sides of Penobscot Bay and along the Penobscot River and its tributaries in eastern Maine)
  • Pemigewasset (lived along the Pemigewasset River and in the White Mountains of New Hampshire)
  • Pigwacket ( Pegouakki , Piguaket , lived on the upper Saco River and its tributaries in southern Maine and southeastern New Hampshire, main village: Pequawket )
  • Pocumtuc Confederation ( Pocumtuck , Pocomtuc , lived along the Connecticut River in western Massachusetts, especially in the area of ​​the confluence of the Deerfield River and Connecticut Rivers ( Quonnenektacut - "Long River"), approximately from the border with Connecticut north to south of Vermont and southwest New Hampshire, their main village, Pocumtuck , was near what is now Deerfield, in northwest Massachusetts, hence they were also called Deerfield Indians )
    • Agawam ( Ag (g) awom (e) , Agawanus , Onkowam , Igwam , Auguam , their main village of the same name was near today's Agawam , directly across from Springfield , Massachusetts, lived on the lower reaches of the Westfield River (formerly: (West) Agawam River , the upper reaches was known as the Woronoake River ) as well as on the west bank of the Connecticut River, but sometimes considered as the Nipmuck )
    • Mayawaug (their main village was in the Connecticut River valley near present-day (west) Suffield in northern Connecticut)
    • Nameroke (their main village of the same name was near present-day Enfield in northern Connecticut, east of Mayawaug )
    • Nonotuck ( Nonotuc , Nanotuck , Nonotucke - "in the middle of the (Connecticut) river", the main village of the same name was near today's Northampton in western Massachusetts - probably identical with the Norvottuck )
    • Norvottuck ( Norwottuck , Norwotog , Nalvotogy , Nalwotogg , Nolwotogg - "in the middle of the (Connecticut) river") lived on both sides of the Connecticut River in the vicinity of today's Hatfield and Hadley in western Massachusetts, their main village of the same name was near Hadley - probably with the Nonotuck identical)
    • Pachasock (lived along the upper course of the Westfield River (formerly: Woronoake River , the lower course was known as the (West) Agawam River ) in the region near today's Westfield and West Springfield in southwest Massachusetts, therefore also called their tribal area Woronoco - "Land of the River Meanders")
    • Peskeompscut (their main village was their favorite fish and salmon fishing grounds on the Connecticut River at Peskeompscut ("Great Waterfalls"), today's Turners Falls parish of the city of Montague, in northern Massachusetts)
    • Pocumtuc ( Pocumtuck , Pocomtook , Pocutuc , Pokamtakuke , their main village Pocumtuck , was located near present-day Deerfield in the Connecticut River valley in northwestern Massachusetts, so the entire Pocumtuc Confederation was often referred to as the Deerfield Indians )
    • Scitico ( Squitkko , their main village of the same name was east of today's Enfield in northern Connecticut, thus east of Nameroke and Mayawaug )
    • Sqawkeag ( Squaeg , Squakheag , their main village of the same name was near what is now Northfield in northern Massachusetts, but sometimes considered as Nipmuck )
    • Woronoake ( Woronoco , Woronock , Woronoake , Waranoke - "land of river meanders", their tribal area Woronoco extended along the upper reaches of the Westfield River (formerly: Woronoake River , the lower course was known as the (West) Agawam River ) and its tributaries in the southwest of Massachusetts, inhabited three villages each under the command of a sachem (or sagamore )
  • Sokoki ( Assokwekik , Sakukia - "people who split off", lived in the middle and upper Connecticut River Valley, main villages: Squakheag , now Northfield, Massachusetts, and Fort Hill)
  • Winooski ( Winoski - "Where the wild onions grow", lived along the Winooski River of the same name and on the shores of Lake Champlain in northwest Vermont)

Dialect and tribal groups of the Abenaki

The assignment to the actual Abenaki tribal group is, however, narrowed down, taking into account a common language and culture. The Handbook of North American Indians assigns the following tribes to the actual Abenaki:

The maps show the approximate location of the Abenaki tribal groups (from north to south):

Abenaki clans

The Abenaki, like many neighboring Algonquin peoples, were divided into several clans, fourteen of which are known:

  • Mals'-sŭm ("wolf")
  • Ta-mä'-kwa ("beaver")
  • Pis-suh ("black wild cat")
  • Maguh-le-loo ("caribou")
  • Ah-weh'-soos ("bear")
  • Kä-bäh'-seh ("sturgeon")
  • Skooke ("snake")
  • Moos-kwä'-suh (" muskrat ")
  • Ah-lunk-soo ("spotted animal")
  • K'-che-gä-gong'-go ("dove, falcon")
  • Meh-ko-ä ("squirrel")
  • Che-gwä'-lis ("spotted frog")
  • Koos-koo ("crane")
  • Mä-dä'-weh-soos ("porcupine")

history

Abenaki couple in the 18th century

Archaeological sources suggest that the Abenaki succeeded by adapting the cultivation of maize, beans and pumpkins (the so-called Three Sisters ) to halt the expansion of the neighboring Iroquois tribes, who had been farming for a long time, into their territory. With the transition to agricultural production, the population increased to such an extent that it was possible to raise enough warriors against the Iroquois threat.

The first contact with the whites came in 1604 through the French Samuel de Champlain near the present-day city of Bangor . In the Anglo-French colonial wars, the Abenaki allied with France . After its defeat, the Abenaki League broke up in 1725. After raids on British settlements of part of the Abenaki during the French and Indian War (1754–1763), British troops under Major Robert Rogers attacked the main settlement of this sub-tribe, burned them down and killed many of their warriors .

Even today the Abenaki fight against the governments of the USA and Canada for different areas. The overlapping of claims in Maine, USA and New Brunswick , Canada and the border within Passamaquoddy Bay further complicate the talks.

Synonyms

Synonyms of the Abenaki and their main departments:

Abenaki Pigwacket Arosaguntacock Kennebec Penobscot
Abenaque Pagwaki Alsigantegwi Camba Pamnaouamske
Abenaquois Peckwalket Amarascoggin Canaba Panagamsde
Abenaqui Pequoaki Amasagunticook Caniba Panama Sequit
Abnasque Pegwacket Amereangan Carriba Panamske
Abenaki Pegwackug Amir jug Kaniba Panaomske
Subscription Pehgwoket Amireaneau Kanibat Panaonke
Albenaqui Pequaket Ammascoggen Kanibesinnoak Panaouanbskek
Anagonge Pequawket Amonoscoggan Kenabeca Panawamske
Mawooshen Pequawett Amrescoggin Kenebecka Panawanscot
Moasham Pickpocket Anasaguntacook Kenabe Panawanbskek
Obenaki Pickwacket Androscoggin Kinibeki Pemetegoite
Onagunga Picwocket Anmoughcawgen Aridgevoak Pemtegoite
Onnogongs Piggwacket Annirkakan Aridgewoak Penaubsket
Openago Piguachet Arouseguntecook Arransoak Penaske
Openango Pigwachet Arunseguntecook Nalatchwaniak Penobskeag
Ouabenaquis Pigwolket Arreguntenock Namgauck Pentagoet
Oubenaquis Piquachet Arreraguntecook Nanrantoak Pentagonet
Oubenaki - Assagunticook Nantan souak Pentagouetch
Owenagunge - Ersegontegog Naragooe Pintagons
Wabanaki - - Naranchouak Ponobscot
Wabnaki - - Narangawock Ponobscut
Coat of arms - - Narautsouak -
Wobanaki - - Norridgewock -

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Thaddeus M. Piotrowski: The Indian Heritage of New Hampshire and Northern New England , page 11, Publisher: Mcfarland & Co Inc; February 2002, ISBN 978-0786410989
  2. ^ Douglas-Lithgow, RA: Native American Place Names of Massachusetts , Applewood Books, page 2, September 2000, ISBN 978-1557095428
  3. ↑ Not to be confused with the Agawam near present-day Springfield, MA, who belonged to the Pocumtuc Confederation , as well as the Agawam near Wareham, Massachusetts, who lived on the Agawam River and Wareham River in southeast, MA, and were part of the Wampanoag Confederation ( or Wôpanâak )
  4. ↑ the neighboring Nipmuck spoke the L dialect, other tribes on the Connecticut River, such as the Pocumtuc Confederation, spoke the R dialect, so that different spelling variants have come down for the settlements and the river valley - such as Nonotuck (Northampton) and Norvottuck (Hadley, Hatfield).
  5. ^ The Westfield Story
  6. ↑ further variants of Sokoki: Sokokiois , Sokoquios , Sokokquis , Sokoni , Sokwaki , Soquachjck , Zooquagese
  7. ^ Diana Muir: Reflections in Bullough's Pond: Economy and Ecosystem in New England. University Press of New England, 2000.

literature

  • Frederick Matthew Wiseman: The Voice of the Dawn. An Autohistory of the Abenaki Nation , University Press of New England, Hanover 2001.
  • Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians . Volume 15: Northeast . Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC 1978, ISBN 0-16-004575-4 .
  • Sylvie Savoie: Le chef abénaquis Nescambiouit et l'alliance franco-abénaquise. In: Recherches amér Indiennes au Québec. 33, 2003, 2, ISSN  0318-4137 , pp. 18-28.

See also

Web links

Commons : Abenaki  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Abenaki  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations