Biblical Aramaic

The biblical Aramaic is an expression of the Aramaic languages , as it is used in some passages of the Tanach or the Old Testament instead of Hebrew. The term covers language forms from different centuries that differ slightly. The biblical Aramaic is not to be confused with the Targumim , Aramaic translations of originally Hebrew or Greek Bible texts that emerged in later times .

font

The biblical Aramaic uses the Hebrew script in the texts handed down by the Masoretes , that is:

It is written from right to left.
Originally there were letters only to represent consonants .
More or less systematically, four of these letters can be used as matres lectionis to indicate a vowel .
The other (especially the short) vowels were not expressed graphically at all and were only supplemented by the Masoretes in the Middle Ages with a system of dots and lines above and below the unchanged consonant signs.
The following transcription is used for consonants on this page:

Hebrew Letter (Hebrew Name)	Transcription	Phonetic transcription ( IPA )
א (Aleph)	^ʔ = 'Aleph'	[ʔ] ( crackling sound = glottal closure) *
ב (Bet)	b / B	[b / v]
ג (Gímel)	g / G	[g / γ]
ד (Dálet)	d / D	[d / ð]
ה (Hey)	H	[H]
ו (Waw)	w	? [w] (English 'w')
ז (Zájin)	z	[z] (voiced 's')
ח (Ħet)	H	[ħ] ( pharyngales 'h' )
ט (Ŧet)	ŧ	[tˁ] ( emphatic 't')
י (iodine)	j	[j]
כ = ך ... (Kaf)	k / K	[k / x]
ל (Lamed)	l	[l]
מ = ם ... (mem)	m	[m]
נ = ן ... (Well)	n	[n]
ס (Sámech)	s	[s]
ע (Áyin)	ʕ = 'Ajin'	[ʕ] ( pharyngeal glottal occlusion )
פ = ף ... (Pe)	p / p	[p / f]
צ = ץ ... ((T) sadé)	c	emphatic s
ק (Qof)	q	[q] ( uvular 'k')
ר (resh)	r	[r]
שׁ: ש (Schin)	š	[ʃ] (German 'sch')
שׂ: ש (Sin)	ś	? [s]
ת (dew)	t / t	[t / θ]

(*) To avoid confusion between the IPA characters (for glottic occlusion ~ Alef) and [ʕ] (for pharyngealized glottal occlusion ~ Ayin), the first character is superscripted below ( ^ʔ ).

Please also note:

Some Hebrew letters (k, m, n, p, c) have a different graphic form at the end of the word; this is given in column 1 after the equal sign.

The pronunciation of the plosives b, d, g, p, t, k depends on their position in the word: after a vowel they often become spirantic , i.e. H. [v, ð, γ, f, θ, x] spoken. The spirantic pronunciation is expressed in the Latin transcription of the Aramaic characters used here by capital letters (B, D, G, P, T, K).

ה (He) at the end of a word is not always pronounced; In dotted texts, the pronounced [h] is marked with a point: הּ .

The letters י, ו, ה, א (Aleph, He, Waw, Jod) are also used to indicate vowels, they then have a different pronunciation than indicated in the table:

א (Aleph) stands for any long vowel, usually / â / at the end of the word.
ה (He) denotes [a:], [e:], [æ:] or [o:] at the end of the word.
י (iodine) denotes [i:], [e:] or [æ:].
ו (Waw) denotes [o:] (dotted: וֹ) or [u:] (dotted: וּ).

If there is a ח (Ħet) or ע (Ajin) at the end of the word, preceded by a vowel other than â ( ָ ), a short [a] is inserted: The word רוח (RWĦ) "Wind, Geist", for example, becomes [ru: aħ ] spoken and represented in dotted notation as רוּחַ (!).

Long / â / ( ָ ) is pronounced as [ɔ:] (which is an open 'o'), as in the Askenasic pronunciation of Hebrew.

Information on the pronunciation of the Masoretic vowel signs can be found on the Masoretic Vocalization page . The following applies as transcription for vowel signs and combinations:

אַ / a /, אֲ / ^a /

אָ / â / ([ɔ:]), אֳ / ^o /

אֶ / æ /, אֱ / ^æ /

אֵ / e /, אֵי / ê /, אְ ( Schwa ) / ^e /

אִ / i /, אִי / î /

אֹ / o /, וֹ / ô /

אֻ / u /, וּ / û /

The Schwa symbol ( אְ / ^e /) can also indicate, according to certain syllable laws , that a consonant is not followed by any vowel!

The stress is mostly on the last syllable; For words with three or more syllables, there is often a secondary stress with at least one syllable away from the main stress.

grammar

Phonetic laws

Spirantization : The non-emphatic plosives usually become spirants after vowels : b → [v], d → [ð], g → [γ], p → [f], t → [θ], k → [x]; This also happens across words in close word combinations (which are marked with a superscript ¯ in the Masoretes) and even when the vowel itself causing the spiral is no longer spoken. At least for t the pronunciation [θ] in the word interior also applies after j .
Patach Furtivum : Before the final Ħet ( ח ) or Ayin ( ע ) - after a vowel other than â - an additional [a] is inserted: / rûħ / = ['ru: aħ].
Glottic closure ([ ^ʔ ]) at the end of the syllable disappears under equivalent stretching: / a ^ʔ ./> ā , / i ^ʔ ./> ē .
Geminated consonants are simplified in the final.
1. n is often assimilated to the following consonant; Gemination is often created by inserting an n .
2. Geminated consonants often become a simple consonant before a schwa and the schwa is then dropped.
/ jī /> ^ʔ i
Short vowels before the final Resch, Ħet or Ayin become / a /.

Verbs

Conjugation in the aorist:

person	Qal active	Hitp ^e ´el:
I	* ^ʔ i -KtuB	^ʔ iT -k^e TiB
you (m.)	ti -KtuB	tiT -k ^e TiB
he	ji -KtuB	jiT -k ^e TiB
she	= you (m.)	= you (m.)
we	ni -KtuB	niT -k ^e TiB
her (m.)	ti -Kt ^e B- ûn	tiT -kaTB- ân
she (m.)	ji -Kt ^e B- ûn	jiT -kaTB- ûn
she (m.)	ji -Kt ^e B- ân	jiT -kaTB- ân

Text passages

The following passages of the Old Testament are written in Aramaic (with increasing age):

Daniel 2: 4b to 7.28.
Ezra 4.8 to 6.18 and Ezra 7.12 to 7.26.
Jeremiah 10:11 .
Genesis 31:47 .

Possibly Aramaic could be:

Jeremiah 10:11

In Hebrew characters: כדנה תאמרון להום אלהיא די¯שמיא וארקא לא עבדו יאבדו מארעא ומן¯תחות שמיא
Transcription: kdnh t ^ʔ mrwn lhwm ^ʔ lhj ^ʔ di-šmj ^ʔ w ^ʔ rq ^ʔ l ^ʔ ʕbdw j ^ʔ bdw m ^ʔ rʕ ^ʔ wmn-tħwt šmj ^ʔ
Phonemes: / kidnā temrūn l ^e hōm ^ʔ^æ lāhajjā dīšmajjā w ^e^ʔ rqā lā ʕ ^a bdū me ^ʔ arʕā ūmin-t ^e ħōt š ^e majjā /
Pronunciation: [kiðˈnɔ: ˌtemˈru: n ləho: m ^ʔæ ˌlɔ: hajˈjɔ: ˌdi: šmajˈjɔ: wə ^ʔ arˈqɔ: lɔ: ʕ ^a vˈðu: jevˈðu: ˌme ^ʔ arˈʕɔ: u: mintəˈχo: ˈθɔ :əmaj
Literal translation: So say to them: Gods who did not make heaven and earth will be destroyed from the earth and from under heaven
Translation according to Luther (revised 1912): "So speak to them now: The gods who did not make heaven and earth must be destroyed from earth and under heaven."

This is followed by a non-inherited in translations Hebrew אלה [ ^ʔ el: æ:] "this" to mean: "to the extent [enough Aramaic commentary]."

Genesis 31:47

According to Luther (revised 1984), this verse reads: “And Laban called him Jegar-Sahaduta, Jacob called him Gal-Ed.” Laban's name “Jegar-Sahaduta” is Aramaic for “heaps of testimony”:

In Hebrew characters: ... יגר שהדותא ...
Phonemes: / j ^e gar śāh ^a dūtā /
Pronunciation: [jəˈγar ˌsɔ: h ^a ðu: ˈθɔ:]
Literal translation: cairn testimony.das (testimony = שַׂהֲדוּ /)

Jacob's designation “Gal-Ed” (גל עד) means “pile of stones of the witness” (pile of stones that serves as a witness) in Hebrew.

Job 36: 2a

In square letters : כתר־לי זעיר ואחוך

Pronunciation according to the Masoretes: [kat: ar li: zəʕe: r wa ^ʔ^a ħaw: æxɔ:]

Translation according to Luther (1912): "Wait a little longer, I will show you".

This verse is Aramaic according to Rashi's comments. The lemmas KTR “stay, expect” and ĦWH “indicate, proclaim” are Aramaic; LJ “me” and ZʕJR “small (aram.), A little (Hebrew)” can come from both languages.

Numbers 23.10

According to Luther (1912), the first part of this verse reads: “Who can count the dust of Jacob and the number of the fourth part of Israel?”
The penultimate word, רבע / roBaʕ /, is usually translated as “quarter”; In Rabbi Joseph Hertz 's comments on this verse, he quotes an unknown student who wants to read an Aramaic word for "dust" in it, and adds a statement by Benno Jacob , according to which the word רבע also means "dust" in the Aramaic of the Palestinian Christians “Is.

Genesis 15.1

The first part of this verse reads according to the 'New Evangelistic Translation': "After these events Abram received the following message from Yahweh in a vision ".
The penultimate word במחזה / ba-maħaze / "in a face" is according to Zohar (I: 88b) Aramaic, because in Hebrew it should be במראה (ba-mar ^ʔ e).

Language comparisons

Biblical Aramaic diachron

Jeremiah 10, 11 used the older אַרְקָא [ ^ʔ instead of the younger: arqɔ] אַרְעָא [ ^ʔ arʕɔ:] in Daniel and Ezra.
The shape הימּוֹן [him: o: n] they (3rd Pl m..) Daniel seems younger than הימּוֹ [him: o:] to be with Ezra.
Esra uses older possessive suffixes than Daniel:
- : For Ezra כֹם ... / com / your (. M 2. pl.)> Daniel: כוֹן ... / Con /.
- In Esra: הֹם ... / hom / next to the younger הוֹן ... / hôn / ihr (3rd pl. M.)> In Daniel only the latter form is used.

Biblical Aramaic and Hebrew

Similarities

There are the same sounds and similar sound laws (e.g. Patach Furtivum and Chateph vowels).
There are two aspects: past tense and perfect tense, multiple stem forms, and both leading and trailing personal suffixes.
There is a definite but not an indefinite article.
There is no more case declination .
Some preceding prepositions and particles merge with the following word and change (/ wa / "and", / b ^e / "in", / k ^e / "like" and others).
Possessive and personal pronouns as an object are expressed using suffixes.
There are three numbers singular, plural and dual .
In the case of personal pronouns and personal suffixes, a distinction is also made between male and female in the 2nd person (you / her).
At the end of the word, the Aramaic spelling used to represent / â / fluctuates between א and ה .

differences

The Hebrew definite article is a prefix (/ha.../), the Aramaic a suffix (/...â/).
Aramaic developed a particle for genitive constructions from the proto-Semitic relative pronoun / * ðî /.
In the Status Absolutus, feminine nouns with a special feminine ending lose the final / t /.
The final m is used in more and more morphemes n in Aramaic .
Some similar words (Aramaic ~ Hebrew): אֱלָהּ / ^æ lâh / ~ אֱלוֹהַ / ^æ ˈlô ^a h / (more often Hebrew is אֵל / el /) "God", טָב / ŧâB / ~ טוֹב / ŧôB / "good", שְׁמַיָּא / š ^e majjâ / ~ שָׁמַיִמ / šâˈmajim / "sky", שְׁמֵשׁ / š ^e meš / ~ שֶמֶשׁ / ˈšæmæš / "sun".

Phonetic equivalents

In certain cases the following Aramaic and Hebrew sounds correspond (in some cases the common ursemitic origin is also indicated):

Aramaic	Hebrew	Example Aramaic	Example Hebrew	meaning
/ t / <ursem. * θ	/ š /	תּוֹר t ôr יתב j ^eT iB	שׁוֹר šôr ישׁב jâ š aB	Ox he sat down
/ d / <ursem. * ð	/ z /	דהב d ^e haB דבח d ^e Baħ	זהב for Ahab זבח for Abah	Gold he sacrificed
/ ŧ / <ursem. * θ´	/ c /	קיט qáji ŧ נטר n ^eŧ ar	קיץ qáji c נצר nâ c ar	Summer he saved
/ ʕ / <ursem. * ð´	/ c /	ארעא ar ʕ -â () רעע* R ʕʕ	הארץ hâ-ˈâr æ c רצץ R CC	shatter the earth
Short vowel <ursem. short closed stressed final syllable	Long vowel	דְּהַב d ^e h â B <ursem. * ðah a b	זָהָב zâh â B	gold
Schwa / Chateph vowel <ursem. short prefix syllable	Long vowel	עֲלַע ʕ ^a laʕ <ursem. * ð´ i laʕ	צֵלָר c e lâʕ	rib
â <ursem. stressed â	O	תְּלָת t ^e l â T <ursem. * θal â θ	שָׁלוֹשׁ šâl ô š	three

(*) Isaiah says older / arqâ /

literature

Hans Bauer , Pontus Leander : Brief biblical-Aramaic grammar. With texts and a glossary. Niemeyer, Halle (Saale) 1929, (6th reprint: Georg Olms, Hildesheim et al. 2008, ISBN 978-3-487-01019-9 ).
Karl Marti : Brief grammar of the biblical-Aramaic language, literature, paradigms, texts and glossary. Berlin 1896; 2nd, improved edition 1911; 3rd, improved edition 1925. ( online )
Heinz-Dieter Neef : Workbook Biblical-Aramaic. Materials, examples and exercises on Biblical Aramaic. 2nd, revised and expanded edition. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-16-150206-4 .