Japanese nationalism

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Propaganda car of right Japanese nationalists with the inscription - "Love and honor Wajuku" ( 敬愛 倭 塾 Aikoku Dantai Keiai Wajuku ), 2006

The Japanese nationalism ( Jap. 国家主義 , Kokka shugi , dt. " Nationalism ") is reflected in a glorification of one's own nation. The origins go back to the great changes in the Meiji period at the end of the 19th century and are continued in the lack of processing of guilt after the Second World War .

Japanese nationalism gained importance especially in the 20th century and was part of the ideology to legitimize the Japanese imperialist expansion policy. After the end of the Second World War, it regained importance in society with economic growth. Nationalist thoughts of today are often justified with the fact that the economic size of China, the demonstrations of military presence and quick-wittedness in both China and North Korea require it.

The origins in the Meiji period (1868-1911)

Reading of the constitution

The Meiji Restoration of 1868 ushered in a new era in Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown, and after more than 500 years, rule went back to the new Tennō , Mutsuhito . The new emperor assumed a central leadership role as a symbol of the unity of Japan, which was previously divided into many small daimyates , which were ruled by the respective daimyos . The Meiji Restoration turned a feudal state into a nation state . The Meiji period is also known for its numerous social and economic reforms and the opening of Japan to the West.

The beginnings of nationalism

The abolition of the hierarchical social status system of the Tokugawa period laid the political basis for the creation of mass nationalism. By dissolving this hierarchy, the previously disadvantaged lower strata now felt that they belonged and were responsible for Japan. Nationalism represented the modernization of Japan on the model of the West.

The opening of Japan

The Meiji government was the first Japanese government to open up the country and sign trade deals with other nations. However, due to the rapid opening of the country, the national economy could not adapt quickly enough to the standards of the western industrial nations. Inflation followed, so that the majority of the population shared the common enemy of the West. Through the opening up, the Japanese people came into contact for the first time with other political systems and attitudes that were previously completely unknown to the island state, including the idea of nationalism . Out of this influence, two of the most dominant forms of nationalism at the time that were in competition with one another developed, Kokumin and Minzoku .

Forms of nationalism

Kokumin

The term kokumin ( 国民 , koku for land, min for people) was created in 1817 and describes the entirety of all samurai of a particular shogunate. The lower social classes were not taken into account. There were many different kokumin within Japan. That changed at the time of the Meiji period. Kokumin became a synonym for political affiliation with a group. People outside this group were seen as inferior. In politics, the term was initially used to protect the rights of the samurai, who enjoyed many privileges before the Meiji period, from the government. But that changed quickly and the term became synonymous with left-wing populist views. Kokumin is not limited to one ethnic group, but refers to a group that shares the same ideas and feels superior to them.

Before the Meiji period, this view was mainly held by opponents of the Christian faith who saw the Christian faith as a danger to their Japan. It is noteworthy that during the Meiji period, it was mainly Christians who spoke out in favor of Kokumin.

The views of the Kokumin emerged mainly on the model of France, which was experiencing the advance of republican nationalism at that time. This attitude of political superiority was carried to Japan through translations of French texts about the revolution. Several Japanese populists romanticized the revolution that led to the “ Third Republic ” in France and used it for their own purposes, especially Miyazaki Muryū , who himself freely translated texts from French and allowed his own political message to flow into it. The nationalist orientation Kokumin was particularly popular before the 1890s and was then replaced by the Minzoku direction. After the 1920s, Kokumin revived.

Minzoku

Minzoku ( 民族 , people, ethnos) was a new word from the Meiji period. The term defines an ethnic group and became a National Socialist catchphrase within Japanese politics that is still widely used today. This form of nationalism can be described as right-wing populist.

At the time of the Meiji period, the Minzoku described a nationalist attitude that saw all ethnic members of the Japanese people as superior. This view received strong support from the religion of Shintoism, which declares the Japanese to be descendants of the gods. Social status played no role in affiliation. The idea of ​​the Minzoku was based on the Prussian model and was based on well-known politicians such as Otto von Bismark and Johann Caspar Bluntschli . A well-known representative was mainly Tōyama Mitsuru, the founder of the ultra-nationalist party Gen'yōsha .

Spread of nationalism through religion

At the beginning of the Meiji period has Shintoism to Buddhism as a state religion replaced. The compulsory separation, also called Shinbutsu-Bunri in Japanese , of Buddhism and Shintoism, the Buddha and the Kami , in 1868 by the Meiji Restoration, led to the loss of the supremacy of Buddhism in the state and the rise of Shintoism.

Shintoism

"Shintō ... [is] the original religion of Japan in the broadest sense, in the narrower sense a system developed from the original religion and Chinese elements for political purposes."

Shintoism is inextricably linked with Japan and the Japanese. It is an ethnic religion that has the essence of Japanese identity. It became the state religion in the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. It is (inseparably) linked to the cause of Japanese nationalism.

A distinction is made between different forms of Shinto: Emperor Shinto, People's Shinto, Sectarian Shinto and State Shinto . All forms were later recognized as nationalist goals. However, only the State Shinto and the Emperor Shinto have a direct connection to nationalism in the Meiji period.

State Shinto

State Shinto ( 国家 神道 , kokka shintō ) was the government's tool to unite the Japanese people and create nationalism. Shintoism was systematically, albeit irregularly, promoted by the state and served as a symbolic legalization. The term State Shinto was only used retrospectively after the Second World War. Before that it was called Shrine Shinto.

Religious freedom was granted in the Meiji Constitution :

"Art. 28 All Japanese subjects enjoy freedom of religious belief as long as it does not violate peace and order and does not detract from their duties as subjects. "

Therefore, the state-prescribed forms of Tennō worship were not referred to as "religious acts", but as "civic duties", even if they took place in the context of shrine rites. The state oriented itself to various Shinto traditions and beliefs in order to legitimize the Tenno and to unite the people through a sense of belonging. So all shrines were nationalized and all residents of Japan were required to register with the local shrines.

The end of State Shinto was determined by the new constitution after World War II.

Tennō Mutsuhito (1888)
Emperor Shinto

The Emperor Shinto describes the practice of rites and customs by the Tenno. This only shows the special role of the Tennō in Shintoism. By centralizing the Tennos in the Shinto religion, he became the chief priest in Shinto. With the descent from the first emperor of Japan, Jimmu , a great-great-great-grandson of Amaterasu , the Japanese sun goddess of Shinto, the emperor legitimized his godlike position. This legend was known before, in the Meiji period it served as the basis for the status and role of the Tenno. Japan's politics, all social, military and religious institutions revolved around the emperor. The strengthening of the position of the tennō was driven forward in the early years of the Meiji period, when emissaries distributed calls across the country to inform the subjects of their emperor. Among other things, an announcement at the Nagasaki courthouse stated the following:

“In this land that is called Japan there is one called the emperor, who is descended from the sun deity. That hasn't changed a bit since then and as the sun is high in the sky he is our master. "

But even more effective than these calls were the Tennō's travels through Japan, where he could be seen by the people and perceived as ruler. Portraits that were widespread in the country and presented in all schools and public offices fulfilled a similar function.

Folk Shinto

Minzoku Shinto, or people's Shinto, is the name of Shintoism practiced by the common people. This traditional way was lived out at the local shrines and was not influenced by the state through the reforms. Folk Shinto flows into many of the rituals of passage celebrated in Japan, along with agriculture and other festivals.

Sectarian Shinto

The sectarian Shinto consisted of a loose association of 13 organizations who believed in certain directions in Shinto, but which was not in agreement with the new state religion.

Buddhism

Buddhism had to adapt to the nationalist ideas of the time in order to regain popularity. Anti-Christian campaigns were launched, which were also received positively by the government. In 1870 there were protests against the suppression of Buddhism, whereupon the government relaxed its sanctions and gave Buddhist priests the opportunity to work for the state. During this time the school of Shin Buddhism was formed , a branch of Buddhism with very nationalistic ideas. The pendants were widely used by the state as colonists, especially to gain a foothold in East Asia. The best-known Shin priest was Inoue Enryō , who with other Buddhist followers, including Shimaji Morukai and Ōuchi Seiran , founded the popular organization " United Movement for the Adoration of the Emperor and the Buddha " in 1889 . This organization was aggressively anti-Christian and did not shy away from violent acts.

Spreading nationalism through schools

Postcard from the Japanese Ministry of Education, circa 1890

The state used the compulsory schooling for girls and boys introduced in 1872 to convey nationalistic values ​​to the broader population so that they could internalize them. Among other things, the image of the imperial couple should be venerated at school.

From a quote from the Imperial Education Dedict of October 30, 1890: "Should it ever prove necessary, sacrifice yourselves valiantly for the fatherland!" It becomes clear that one calls for a nationalism up to self-sacrifice.

The Ministry of Religion issued three teaching commandments ( sanjō kyōken ) of the Great Doctrine that every teacher should observe. However, these were very general.

  1. Consistent with the spirit of devotion to the kami and love for the emperor
  2. Clarification of the heavenly principle and the human way
  3. Praise to the emperor and obedience to the imperial family

The goal of this upbringing was the production of talented, educated, and patriotic subjects.

Japanese nationalism from 1911

Nationalism can be reflected in all areas of everyday life; this penetration of life was consciously used politically in Japan to stylize the nation and nationality into something special, as well as to legitimize colonization and war.

politics

After the Meiji period (1868–1912), parties regained more political power, supported by the efforts of the population to gain a greater say and the right to co-determination. In particular, the right to vote was renewed here. The first socialist parties emerged, such as the Shakai Taishūtō, or the Communist Party of Japan.

The world economic crisis in 1930, which also hit Japan, collapsed the export economy and had serious consequences for the civilian population. In the course of this, many right-wing, nationalist groups were founded who wanted to bring about a "healing of the nation" by eliminating capitalism and liberalism. The military pushed the parties more and more into the background, and with its nationalist ideas it continued the right-wing, nationalist course.

Only after the Second World War and with the adoption of the new constitution on May 3, 1947 did the parties regain influence in political events. One of the strongest parties, the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan , LDP ( 自由 民主党 , Jiyūminshutō ), divided itself again into several internal party currents. The national conservative wing under Ishibashi Tanzan and Hatoyama Iichirō made the demand to revise the peace article of the new constitution (Article 9) and to arm the Japanese military again. In the course of the following decades, the LDP repeatedly produced small conservative, right-wing parties that split off from the LPD due to their sometimes radical views. For example the right-wing populist Party of the Restoration ( 日本 維新 の 会 , Nippon Ishin no Kai ). Visits to the Yasukuni shrine by high-ranking politicians such as that of Jun'ichirō Koizumi in 2005 repeatedly resolve national and international debates, as war criminals are also honored here. In Koizumi's self-image, such visits were not directed against Japan's long development into a peaceful country and reflection on its own past.

military

The Japanese armed forces were called Imperial Japanese Army from 1868 to 1945 , and from 1945 onwards they were called Self-Defense Forces . Since 1900 the Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy had a veto right in the formation of Cabinets. With advancing militarism , the size of the army and its political commitment grew. Two attempted coups by the military failed. The most dominant idea of ​​the military factions was that of Pan -Japaneseism, in the form of an Asian confederation of states under Japanese leadership and the organization of the colonies under a Greater East Asian sphere of prosperity . In addition to the idea of ​​militarism that a strong military means a strong nation, Japan and the Japanese people were sacred to the military, which they based on Japanese Buddhism and Shinto .

The Nanking massacre , comfort women, and Japanese war propaganda showed the extent of the Japanese military's ultra-nationalist view. This admission and tacit approval of war crimes is an indication that here not only Japan (er) put themselves above relatives of other nationalities, but also assumed that their opponents were inhuman in addition to inferiority. This devaluation of other peoples was characterized, among other things, in dealing with prisoners of war, the numerous human experiments ( unit 731 ), arbitrary killings and mutilations. With the unconditional surrender , the army was disbanded and US troops were stationed in Japan.

The Japanese self-defense forces that were built up by the American occupiers have not yet participated in combat operations. Since March 2016 there has been the “ right to collective self-defense ”, the law includes the right to armed support when called upon by the United Nations or non-governmental organizations .

Religion after 1911

Buddhism

Especially during World War II, various Zen masters, including DT Suzuki and Harada Sogaku, advocated Japanese militarism and made positive comments about the war.

“[When commanded to] march: march, march; [when an order is given to] shoot: bang, bang. This is the manifestation of the highest wisdom [of enlightenment]. The unity of Zen and war I speak of extends into the most remote areas of holy war [which is raging now]. "

- Harada Sogaku (1939)

There were also various acts of violence and assassinations initiated by certain Zen masters and their students, which ultimately led to the development of the Tenno-centered, militarily dominated society around 1940. An example of this is the murder of Lieutenant Aizawa Saburo in 1935 by a student of the Soto sect, who appealed to the teachings of Zen before a court. Inoue Nissho , a radical Buddhist teacher who was the leader of the so-called " blood oath corps " murdered several influential economic and political elites. He justified his actions with the ideas of Buddhism.

Shinto

The prayer hall ( haiden ) of the Yasukuni Shrine - National and Imperial Seals of Japan at the Noren in the front, 2010

After the Second World War, state Shinto was banned as a state religion (State Shinto) in 1945. In 1946 the Tennō renounced any claim to divinity. The previously existing government institutions for the control of religious affairs were dissolved. Visits to the Yasukuni shrine by high-ranking Japanese politicians are precarious and always part of nuisance . This shrine is used to worship all of Japan's war dead, including war criminals. Because of this, Emperor Hirohito has been avoiding this shrine since 1979.

education

The end of the war in 1945 also brought about the reform of the Japanese school system. A step towards democratization and anti-militarization began with the blackening ( 墨 塗 り , suminuri ) of the Japanese school history books . Teachers have been ordered by the government to remove military and other educational content from books. The new textbooks of 1946 titled the Second World War under the new name Pacific War ( 太平洋 戦 争 ), but did not address the much more difficult question of the responsibility of the Japanese.

Patriotic upbringing continued to play an important role in general education curricula and textbooks in the decades that followed, despite the anti-nationalization of Japanese society. War crimes and atrocities committed by the Japanese government and military during the first half of the 20th century are only touched on in history classes to this day. This is one reason for a lack of understanding among the younger generation with regard to the defensive stance of neighboring Pacific states, especially Korea and China. Atrocities such as the Nanking massacre in 1937, the tests of biological warfare agents on the Chinese civilian population or the forced prostitution of so-called " comfort women " ( 慰安婦 ianfu ) in Korea and other Asian countries are not dealt with in sufficient depth. The textbooks often downplay the responsibility of the Japanese state and thus try to preserve the honor, authority and status of the Japanese people at the time of the surrender in 1945. There are still many disputes and public disputes in the context of the Japanese textbook dispute .

Right civil movements

Around 900 ultra-national, right-wing civic groups ( 右翼 団 体 uyoku dantai , dt. "Organization of right groups"), which are summarized under the umbrella term Uyoku ( 右翼 , "right wing"), exist in Japan today. The approximately 10,000 members represent right-wing extremist and nationalist views, which are expressed in an anti-communist and anti-Americanist attitude. The glorification of Japan's imperialist past plays a major role, as does the demand to regain the territories lost in World War II. They spread slogans mainly via public address systems in minibuses. They are prone to extreme excesses and are strongly linked to the history of the yakuza .

Media and literature

Nihonjinron ( 日本人 論 ), also known as Nihonbunkaron ( 日本 文化 論 ) are discourses that proclaim Japan's special and unique cultural position vis-à-vis other cultures. Between 1945 and 1978, around 700 papers on nationalist views were published in newspapers, magazines and books. Topics were u. a. the homogeneity, that is, the uniqueness of the Japanese people, the incompetence of foreigners to understand and learn Japanese culture and language, as well as the requirement to protect the economy, politics and society from the influence of foreigners.

Nowadays nationalism finds its way into numerous anime and manga , as is clear from the example of the sport-oriented anime series. The Japanese team is portrayed as winning favorites, as in Captain Tsubasa , Prince of Tennis , Slam Dunk, and a few more. Anime and manga occupy a permanent place in today's media and entertainment genre, and thus serve as a useful tool in increasing Japan's popularity at home and abroad. It represents Japan's efforts to create and maintain a positive self-image and image . Although there are series that take up topics on war and violence, only a few in which the historical guilt of Japan as a belligerent aggressor state in the 20th century clearly emerges.

Ethnic minorities

After the war ended in 1945, many states that were a protectorate of Japan before World War II regained their independence. Linked to this was that many local minorities lost their Japanese citizenship and had to identify themselves again with their original country of origin. Thus, they no longer fell under the "citizen term", which led to them having a subordinate position vis-à-vis Japanese citizens.

The North and South Koreans living in Japan - Zainichi ( 在 日 , meaning "people living in Japan"), but also Chinese - overseas Chinese , Ainu - indigenous people of the Hokkaidō Islands, Ryūkyūans - indigenous people of the Ryūkyū Islands (today mostly on the main island of Okinawa ) and the Burakumin ( 部落 民 ), an outcast group on the fringes of Japan's social order. Xenophobia and discrimination ran through all social instances, so that they were disadvantaged in many areas of public life.

Today, the proportion of foreigners in Japan at around 2% is still very low compared to other industrialized countries, but the numbers have increased noticeably in recent years. According to a 2006 report by the Economic and Social Council of the UN , racial discrimination and xenophobia remain widespread in Japan. Minorities experience political, social, economic and cultural exclusion, which is also related to high unemployment rates and increased crime.

In contrast to the past, however, there has already been some improvement through specific legislative measures. For example, until the mid-1980s, the government completely denied the existence of native Japanese people. Laws were only passed in 2008 to protect the Ainu as an indigenous people with their own language, culture and religion.

Symbols of Japanese nationalism

Japanese nationalism
image and symbolism
Propagandist-legitimist representation of Emperor Meiji and his wife Shōken (middle, seated) between deities
"Chrysanthemum coat of arms " ( Kiku no Gomon ), ( 菊 の 御 紋 ) - Japanese national symbol
"Chrysanthemum Crest" - Japanese Passport
Yasukuni Shrine and "Chrysanthemum Crest", 2003
"Chrysanthemum coat of arms" on the bow of the Japanese warship Mikasa
"Flag of the Rising Sun" ( Kyokujitsuki , 旭日 旗 ) - naval flags in Japan before and after World War II

The Meiji period produced a number of nationalist symbols and rites that did not exist before with this meaning. They were spread through targeted propaganda and still have a nationalist significance today.

Banzai

Banzai ( 万 歳 ) is an abbreviation of the Japanese phrase Tennō heika Banzai! ( 天皇 陛下 万 歳 , "Long live his Majesty the Emperor - Tennō ."), Which was used in honor of the emperor. After the Meiji Restoration, it was abbreviated to banzai ( ば ん ざ い ) and is an expression of general joy and enthusiasm.

Emperor as a symbol

The Tennō ( 天皇 ) was given an ever greater role in the state by the nationalist state ideology, which was particularly advanced by the Meiji Restoration. He symbolized the father of Japan and his subjects were the children who had to be devoted to him. He has been called a living god to be respected and worshiped.

Imperial seal

Kiku no Gomon ( 菊 の 御 紋 , "Chrysanthemum coat of arms "), Japanese for the imperial seal . It consists of a stylized chrysanthemum with 16 petals. Only the Tennō himself can use it. You can find it on the cover of the Japanese passport, among other things. The throne of the Japanese emperor (Tennō) is therefore also known as the "chrysanthemum throne". In Japan, the "chrysanthemum symbol " is sometimes referred to as Shiragiku ( 白菊 , English "white chrysanthemum").

Kyokujitsuki

Kyokujitsuki ( 旭日 旗 , "Flag of the Rising Sun", English Rising Sun Flag ): The legend that the Japanese are descended in the broadest sense from the sun goddess Amaterasu is shown by the symbol of the sun on the Japanese flag.

War symbols

More symbols

literature

  • Klaus Antoni: Shinto and the conception of the Japanese national system ( Kokutai ) , in the series "Handbuch der Orientalistik. Abt. 5, Japan; Vol. 8", Brill, 1998, ISBN 90-04-10316-3 .
  • Kevin Doak: A History of Nationalism in Modern Japan: Placing the People . 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-15598-5 .
  • James L. Huffman: Modern Japan: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism . 1997, ISBN 978-0-8153-2525-3 .
  • Maiko Kuroki: Nationalism in Japan's Contemporary Foreign Policy , Thesis at the London School of Economics and Political Science, 2013. ( digitized version )
  • Bernhard Schneid: Shintō, attempt to define terms , last accessed: January 30, 2017. ( online )
  • Brian A. Victoria: Zen, Nationalism and War . Theseus Verlag, 1997, ISBN 3-89620-132-8 .

Web links

Individual evidence

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  5. ^ A b James L. Huffman: Modern Japan: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism . 2013, ISBN 978-0-8153-2525-3 , pp. 149 .
  6. ↑ Kevin Doak: A History of Nationalism in Modern Japan: Placing the People . 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-15598-5 , pp. 37 .
  7. ↑ Kevin Doak: A History of Nationalism in Modern Japan: Placing the People . 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-15598-5 , pp. 50 .
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