Kistane (language)
| Kistane ( Kəstane , other names: Soddo, Soddo Gurage, North Gurage, Kestane) | ||
|---|---|---|
|
Spoken in |
Ethiopia | |
| speaker | approx. 250,000 | |
| Linguistic classification |
||
| Language codes | ||
| ISO 639 -1 |
- |
|
| ISO 639 -2 |
sem (other Semitic languages) |
|
| ISO 639-3 |
gru |
|
Kistane (own name: Kəstane , also known as Soddo ) is a Gurage language and is spoken by 250,000 to 300,000 people in southeastern Ethiopia . It belongs to the subfamily of the northern Gurage languages, making it a South Ethiopian Semitic language . Kistane was formerly referred to in various sources as Aymälläl after one of its dialects .
grammar
noun
As in most Ethiopian languages attributes to nouns preceded.
The definite article -i is added as a suffix to the noun. E.g. goš "boy"> goš-i : "the boy"; ätit : "sister"> ätiti : "the sister"; bayyočč : "children"> bayyočč-i : "the children". If the noun ends in -a or -ä , this vowel is usually omitted if the suffix -i is added. E.g. angačča : "cat"> angačč-i : "the cat". A noun ending in -i usually remains unchanged. E.g. abi : "(the) father, owner". In the case of a noun ending in -e, -o, -u, a y is inserted before the suffix . E.g. ge : "house"> geʸi : "the house"; wälläho : "neighbor"> wällähoʸi : "the neighbor". If the noun is extended by an attribute, the article is only used for the first element. E.g. maläk 'ge : "big house"> maläk'-i ge : "the big house"; yä-šum-i ge : "the big house of the official" (lit. "from the official-the house"); yä-mät't'-i məss : "the man who came" (lit. "who-came-the man".)
There is no true indefinite article , although indefiniteness can be expressed by prefixing the words attə or k'una ("one / any").
A noun has one of the two grammatical genera masculine and feminine, according to which the verb that refers to it is also based.
Nouns are identified as a specific direct or indirect object with the prefix yä- or na- . E.g. yä-geʸi ažžo : “he saw the house”; yä-zämmihʷan abännət : “he gave it to his brother” (lit. “to-his-brother he-gave-him”). Direct objects can also be identified by suffixes attached to the verb. E.g. yabiddi tšakkunnət : "I asked my father" (lit. "my-father-obj. I-asked-him".)
A property relationship is indicated by the prefix yä- in front of the noun, whereby the owner precedes the noun in possession: yä-šum-i ge : "the official's house" (lit. "from-official-the house"). If there is a preposition in front of the noun in possession, the prefix yä- : babiddi färäz instead of * bä-yä-abiddi färäz for "on my father's horse" is omitted .
pronoun
Personal pronouns
| German | alone |
Possessive pronoun suffix (nouns ending in a consonant) |
Possessive pronoun suffix (nouns ending in a vowel) |
|---|---|---|---|
| I | ädi | -əddi | -ddi |
| you (m. sg.) | eh | -dä | -dä |
| you (f. sg.) | because it | -because it | -because it |
| he | kʷa | -äw , -kʷan | -w , -hʷan |
| she | kʸa | -ki | -Hi |
| we | əñña | -əñña | -ñña |
| her (m. pl.) | duh | -duh | -duh |
| you (f. pl.) | dähma | -dähma | -dähma |
| she (m. pl.) | can | -kənnäm | -hənnäm |
| she (f. pl.) | kənnäma | -kənnäm | -hənnäm |
Ownership can also be indicated by placing yä- in front of a single pronoun, e.g. B .: yädähəm t'əb : "your clan".
Reflexive pronouns are formed by aras- , gubba- , k'um- in front of the possessive suffixes, e.g. B. ädi äras-əddi mät'afi t'afkunnət : "I wrote the book myself".
Demonstrative pronouns
Proximal: zi : "this, this, this"; zini : "this". For example: zi məss : "this man", zi məšt : "this woman", zi säbočč : "these men".
Distal: za : "that, that, that"; zani : "that there, that". E.g. ta-za məss goy mät't'ahi : "I came with that man".
Interrogative pronouns
- ma : "who?" ( man in front of the copula ): man mät't'a? : "Who came?"
- yäma : "whose?"
- mən : “what?”; yämən : "why?"
- yitta , yittat : "which, which, which?" e.g. yitta bayy mät't'am : "which child came?"
- yittani : "which, which, which (of them)?"
Indefinite pronoun
- (yähonä) säb : "someone"
- mannəm (säb) : "none, none, none" (with negative verb)
- attəm: "none" (= "nothing" with negative verb); attəmu: "none" (as pronoun)
- lela (säb): "other, other, other"
- yäk'irrä k'äy: "something else" (lit. "another thing")
- attə: "a certain, a certain, a certain"
- ləyyu: "a different, a different, a different"
- k'una, zam, zəč'ə: "the same, the same, the same"
- äbälo (f. äbälit ): "so-und-so"
- zihom: "such, such, such"
kulləm = "all" (can be before or after the noun); kulləm-u , bä-mollaw = "whole, whole, whole". yät'oma = "only one, only one". "Everyone, everyone, everyone" is indicated by doubling the noun.
Copula and existential verbs
The copula (positive and negative) is irregular in the present tense :
| German | be | Not be |
|---|---|---|
| I am | nah (h) | ädäbukk |
| you (m. sg.) are | sew | ädäbəkkä |
| you (f. sg.) are | naš | ädäbəčč |
| he is | -n, -ən (after a consonant) | ädäbəll |
| she is | n / A | ädäbəlla |
| we are | nana | ädäbəllänä |
| you (m. pl.) are | sew | ädäbəkkəm |
| you (f. pl.) are | nahma | ädäbəkkəma |
| they (m. pl.) are | namely | ädäbəlläm |
| they (f. pl.) are | nama | ädäbəäma |
Example: zämmidi sewä : "you are my brother".
The past (“he was” etc.) is expressed by the verb nabbar , which is regularly conjugated in the perfect tense ; the negated past (“he wasn't” etc.) with annäbär . The future is formed with the past tense form of hono : yəhonu : "he will be" etc. The negative future is accordingly expressed with tihon . The copula in the present tense is formed in subordinate clauses with the subordinate perfect of honä , e.g. B .: däffär yähonä tädi-goy yalfu : “he who is brave will go with me”.
“It is he” etc. can be formed by adding the -tt element between the pronoun and the copula, e.g. B. kʷa-ttə-n : "it is he".
The verb "to be", "to exist" is in the present tense:
| German | to be / be there | not be / not be there |
|---|---|---|
| I am | yinahi | yellähu |
| you (m. sg.) are | yinəho | yellähä |
| you (f. sg.) are | yinäšin | yelläš |
| he is | yino | yellä |
| she is | yinätti | yellät |
| we are | yinano | yellänä |
| you (m. pl.) are | yinähmun | yellähəm |
| you (f. pl.) are | yinähman | yellähma |
| they (m. pl.) are | yinämun | yelləm |
| they (f. pl.) are | yinman | yelləma |
As with the copula, the past and future are formed with nabbärä and honä . In subordinate clauses, the present tense is conjugated with the perfect form -allä (negated with -lellä ), e.g. For example : bämeda yalləmi säbočč araš nam : “the people who are in the field are farmers”.
The verb expressing a property relationship (“he has” etc.) is combined with the verb yino “it is” (in the form corresponding to the object in the property relationship ) and the corresponding possessive suffixes on the object (e.g. “it is to him "etc.)
Verbs
A verb can contain one to four consonants or it can be used with balo : “say” (e.g. bək'k 'balo : “appear”.) In the above case, the verbs are divided into three “ conjugations ”, depending on which one is distinguishing vowels and the formation of the past tense, e.g. B. for a verb with three consonants:
- säbbäro , past tense yəsäbru ("break")
- tikkälo , past tense yətikkəlu
- č'affäro , past tense yəč'affəru
The derived verb stems can have different forms:
- A reduplicative: e.g. B. gäddälo : "kill"> gədaddälo . This form can convey different meanings, mostly it is used to intensify the verb.
- Passive / Reflexive / Intransitive ta prefix: z. B. käffälo : "to pay"> ta-käffälo "to be paid". A present reciprocity, i. H. a reciprocal action can be given by this prefix before a transitive verb with the vowel a after the first radical or the reduplicative form, e.g. B. t-gäddäl-mun or t-gdaddäl-mun : "they killed each other".
- In intransitive verbs, the causative corresponds to the transitive form (not used in this sense) with the prefix a- , z. B. säkkäro : "to be drunk"> a-säkkäro : "to make someone drunk"; näddädo : "burn (intr.)"> a-näddädo "burn (tr.)".
- The causative in transitive or passive verbs is formed with the prefix at- (+ -i- ), e.g. B. käddäno : "cover"> at-kiddäno : "let yourself be covered" or "cause to be covered". In addition to the form with -a- , it expresses a reciprocal relationship or makes a contribution to something (assistance, etc.), e.g. B. atgaddälo : "induce mutual killing" or "help to kill".
- Verbs with the prefix ən- or tän- can only be derived from the a- stem, with the a- replacing the prefix ə- or ta- . E.g. ənkrättäto : “to be bent”> ankrättäto “to bend”.
The tenses perfect (past) and imperfect (non-past) have different forms for main and subordinate clauses as well as positive and negative statements. Other forms are jussive ( desired form ), imperative (command form) and impersonal .
conjugation
Perfect
| German | main clause | subordinate clause | Relative clause | subordinate to -m |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| i measured | säffär-ki | säffär-kʷ | yä-säffär-ki | säffär-cum |
| you (m. sg.) measure (e) st | säffär-ko | säffär-kä | yä-säffär-ki | säffär-käm |
| you (f. sg.) measured (e) st | säffär-šin | säffär-š | yä-säffär-š-i | säffär-šəm |
| he measured | säffär-o | säffär-Ä | yä-säffär-i | säffär-äm |
| she measured | säffär-ätti | säffär-ät | yä-säffär-ätt-i | säffär-ättəm |
| we measured | säffär-no | säffär-nah | yä-säffär-ni | säffär-nam |
| you (m. pl.) measure | säffär-əmun | säffär-kəmu | yä-säffär-kəm-i | säffär-kəmum |
| you (f. pl.) measure | säffär-kəman | säffär-kəma | yä-säffär-kəma-yi | säffär-kəmam |
| they (m. pl.) measured | säffär-mun | säffär-m | yä-säffär-mi | säffär-mum |
| they (f. pl.) measured | säffär-man | säffär-ma | yä-säffär-ma-yi | säffär-mam |
The form in -m is used in subordinate clauses to include verbs in higher-level clauses (see the ending -te in Japanese ). It can be translated with "and", as a gerund or resultative . The Perfect shape -m followed by näbbär form the pluperfect .
The negative form of the perfect is formed with the prefix al- and a change in the vowel. For the conjugation table above , the corresponding forms are al-säfärä , al-takkälä and al-č'afärä .
Examples: ge aräššo : “he built a house”; banätäw k'ən awänna-m bämida tonnaw : "He sat outside with butter on his head".
Past tense
| German | main clause | subordinate clause |
|---|---|---|
| I move forward | äbädru | äbädər |
| you (m. sg.) advance | təbädru | təbädər |
| you (f. sg.) advance | təbädri | təbʸedər |
| here progresses | yəbädru | yəbädər |
| she progresses | təbädri | təbädər |
| we move forward | (ən) nəbädru | (ən) nəbädər |
| you (m. pl.) advances | təbädrəmun | təbädrəm |
| you (f. pl.) advance | təbädrəman | təbädrəma |
| they (m. pl.) advance | yəbädrəmun | yəbädrəm |
| they (f. pl.) advance | yəbädrəman | yəbädrəma |
As in the perfect tense, the subforms will be given the suffix -m to indicate a series of actions. This can be combined with nabbär to express a habitual act in the past.
Examples: ahoññ gäbäya nalfu : “today we will go to the market”; yəgädəl məss : “the man who kills”; mas tənäsa-m yibara wawt'a tək'ärsi : "she takes the mats and begins to remove the dung".
An added -ən does not change the meaning significantly.
| German | negative main clause | reasonable subordinate clause |
|---|---|---|
| i don't start | tak'ärs | annək'ärs |
| you (m. sg.) do not begin | təttək'ärs | attək'ärs |
| you (f. sg.) do not begin | təttək'erš | attək'erš |
| he doesn't start | tik'ärs | ayk'ärs |
| it doesn't start | təttək'ärs | attək'ärs |
| we don't start | tənnək'ärs | annək'ärs |
| you (m. pl.) does not begin | təttək'ärsəm | attək'ärsəm |
| you (f. pl.) do not begin | təttək'ärsəma | attək'ärsəma |
| they (m. pl.) do not begin | tik'ärsəm | ayk'ärsəm |
| they (f. pl.) do not begin | tik'ärsəma | ayk'ärsəma |
Examples: ahoññ yəmät'a timäsəl : “it does not seem that he will come today”; ädahʷan t-aykäfəl alläfo : "he left without paying his debts".
Jussive and imperative
| person | Conjugation A | Conjugation B | Conjugation C |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. sg. | wet | Näšäkkət | nägalb |
| 2. m. so called | səfär | šäkkət | galb |
| 2. f. so called | safer | šäkkič | galʸib |
| 3. m. so called | yesfər , yäsfər | yešäkkət | yegalb |
| 3. f. so called | tesfər | tešäkkət | tegalb |
| 1. pl. | (ən) nəsfär | nəšäkkət | nəgalb |
| 2. m. pl. | səfärəm | šäkkətəm | galbəm |
| 2. f. pl. | səfärma | šäkkətma | galbəma |
| 3. m. pl. | yesfərəm | yešäkkətəm | yegalbəm |
| 3. f. pl. | yesfərma | yešäkkətma | yegalbəma |
These forms are negated with the prefix ay- : ayəsfär , ayšäkkət , aygalb . The forms in the 2nd person are adjusted accordingly: attəsfär , attəsfer , attəsfärəm , attəsfärma .
Example: yä-wäzälawan-hom yewsəd : “let him take according to his work”; yäsäb waga attəlgäd : “do not touch someone's property”; ärəf-əm tona : "be quiet and sit down".
literature
- Gustavo Bianchi: Alla terra dei Galla . 1st edition. Milan 1884, 2nd edition 1886, 3rd edition 1896.
- E. Haberland: Remarks on the culture and language of the “Galila” in Lake Wonč'i (Central Ethiopia). In: Rassegna di studi etiopici . 16 (1960), pp. 5-22.
- Gideon Goldenberg: Kəstanəñña: Studies in a Northern Gurage Language of Christians . In: Orientalia Suecana . 17 (1968), pp. 61-102 (= Gideon Goldenberg: Studies in Semitic Linguistics . The Magnes Press, Jerusalem 1998, ISBN 965-223-992-5 ).
- Gideon Goldenberg: L'étude du gouragué et la comparaison chamito-sémitique . In: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei , Roma - Problemi attuali di Scienza e di Cultura . Quad. N. 191 II (1974), pp. 235-249 (= Studies in Semitic Linguistics . Pp. 463-477).
- Gideon Goldenberg, The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia and Their Classification . In: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies . 40 (1977), pp. 461-507 (= Studies in Semitic Linguistics . Pp. 286-332).
- Gideon Goldenberg: Linguistic Interest in Gurage and the Gurage Etymological Dictionary . (Review article of Wolf Leslau (1979)) In: Annali, Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli . 47 (1987), pp. 75-98 (= Studies in Semitic Linguistics . Pp. 439-462).
- Gideon Goldenberg: Two points of Kəstane grammar . In: Grover Hudson (Ed.): Essays on Gurage language and culture: dedicated to Wolf Leslau on the occasion of his 90th birthday, November 14th, 1996 . Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1996, ISBN 3-447-03830-6 , pp. 93-99.
- Wolf Leslau : Ethiopians speak: Studies in cultural background, III. Soddo . In: Near Eastern Studies , 11. University of California Press, Berkeley 1968.
- Wolf Leslau: Etymological Dictionary of Gurage (Ethiopic) . 3 volumes. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1979, ISBN 3-447-02041-5 .
- Wolf Leslau: Gurage Studies: Collected Articles . Otto Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden 1992, ISBN 3-447-03189-1 .
- Johannes Mayer: Short collection of words in English, German, Amharic, Gallan, Guraguesch . Edited by Dr. L. Krapf. Pilgrim Mission Printing House St. Grischona, Basel 1878.
- Franz Praetorius: About the dialect of Gurāguē . In: The Amharic Language . Halle 1879, pp. 507-523 (second appendix).
- Robert Hetzron: Main Verb-Markers in Northern Gurage . In: Africa . XXXVIII (1968), pp. 156-172.
- yä-Kəstane Gurage əmmät (həzb) tarik . Addis Ababa 1986 ( Ethiopian Calendar ).
Web links
- Christian recordings in Soddo in Global Recordings