gerund

The gerund (Latin gerere “to accomplish”, gerundus (older form for gerendus ) “to perform”, as a noun neuter gerundium “to perform”) is a verbal noun in Latin , that is, a form that has substantive and verbal properties. It supplements the substantival use of the infinitive form and forms the missing case forms (cases) genitive, dative and ablative, since the infinitive form in Latin can only be used as a nominative or preposition-free accusative.

Examples:

• casual "reading, reading" → ars legendī (genitive) "the art of reading"
• docēre "teach, the teaching" → docendō (ablative) discimus "through (the) teaching we learn"

The gerund has properties of an infinite verb form : it can rule a direct object and combine with adverbs . Formally, it is the substantiated neuter of the verbal adjective gerundive (gerundive) from which it arose.

Example of the formal derivation of the gerund from the gerund:

• Gerundive (passive verbal adjective on -us, -a, -um with the endings of the o / a-declension): The neuter singular legendum " ein zu lesendes " is substantiated to the gerund on -i, -o, -um: legendī "des Reading ”, legendō “ by reading ”, ad legendum “ for reading ”.

Gerundive and gerund are also called adjectival nd-form (= gerundive) or substantival nd-form (= gerund) because of their characteristic educational element .

The use of the term “gerund” for other languages ​​- apart from the Romance languages, in which the Latin gerund lives on - is partly established in the grammar traditions concerned, but problematic in terms of content.

In English gerund is (engl. In traditional grammar, the term gerund ) for a so-called ing used forms. As a result of the results of modern linguistics, the terms from Latin grammar are replaced by others in some presentations.

In the New High German grammar, the term gerund is not used because there is no longer a gerund in the real sense in the modern German language. In German dialectology, however, the term is applied to forms that go back to the Old and Middle High German gerund.

In the Slavic languages , the adverbial participles are also called gerunds.

The gerund in different languages

Latin

In the declination of the Latin infinitive active present, the infinitive itself takes on the function of the nominative and the pure (preposition-free) accusative.

Examples:

• Nominative: Cantāre mē dēlectat. "Singing (the singing) delights me."
• Accusative: Didicī cantāre. "I learned to sing (the singing)."

The missing cases, the so-called cāsūs oblīquī genitive, dative, accusative with preposition and ablative, are taken over from the gerund.

Morphology (formation of shapes)

Morphologically , the gerund is formed from the present stem of the verb, the indicator -nd- and the three endings -ī, -ō, -um . The stem end is shortened ( am ā re “to love”> am ă ndi “of love”), in the 3rd and 4th conjugation there is the intermediate vowel e ( aud īre “to hear”> audĭ ĕ ndī “of hearing”, capere “ To catch”> capi ĕ ndī “of catching”).

• 1. Conjugation (ā-conjugation): laud āre "to praise, to praise"> laud andī "of praise",
• 2. Conjugation (ē conjugation): dēl ēre "to destroy, to destroy"> dēl endī "to destroy",
• 3. Conjugation (consonant conjugation): reg ere "to lead, to lead"> reg endī "of lead",
• 3. Conjugation (mixed or ĭ-conjugation): cap ere “to catch, to catch”> cap iendī “to catch ”.
• 4. Conjugation (ī-conjugation): aud īre "to hear, to hear"> aud iendī "of hearing"

The following table shows the declination of the Latin infinitive of the verb laudāre “ loben ” in the nominative and pure accusative as well as the forms of the gerund in the genitive, dative, accusative (with preposition) and ablative (with or without preposition).

case	shape	possible translation
Nominative	laudāre	praise, praise
Genitive	laudandī	of praise
dative	laudandō	praise
accusative	laudāre	praise, praise
accusative	ad laudandŭm	to praise
ablative	(in) laudandō	in praising, by praising

Syntax and semantics

The accusative of the gerund ( laudandum ) only comes after prepositions such as ad, in, inter, ob. The dative case is not used. The ablative stands either alone or with the prepositions in, ab, ex, dē, prō.

In contrast to the verbal adjective gerundive, the gerund merely describes the act of the verb, the doing without a need to express (such as the gerund in vir laudandus “a man to be praised, a man to be praised”).

Syntactically, the gerund takes the position of an attribute (addition) or an adverbial determination ( determination of circumstances).

• Genitive (attribute):
  • ars vivendi "the art of living / the art of living",
  • facultās evadendi “the possibility of escape”,
  • evadendī causa "to escape / because of the escape",

Semantics: final, causal.

• Accusative (adverbials):
  • ad pugnandum parātus "ready to fight",

Semantics: modal, final.

• Dative ("final dative"):
  • solvendō non esse “to be insolvent”.

• Ablative (adverbial):
  • bellandō diripiendōque "by waging a war and by looting", "by waging war and looting",

Semantics: instrumental / modal.

• in conficiendō "at / during the implementation",

Semantics: temporal.

Since the gerund is not just a noun but also a verbal form, it can be associated with an object or an adverbial determination:

• Gerund with object :
  • Pompēium laudandō "by praising Pompey / by praising Pompey",
  • ōrātiōnem habendō "by giving a speech",
  • iniūriam ferendō "by bearing an injustice."
• Gerund with adverb :
  • diū ridendō "through long laughter",
  • fortiter bellandō "through brave warfare",
  • Gútta cavát lapidém nōn ví, sed saépe cadéndō. "The drop does not hollow out the stone with force, but through frequent falling / constant dripping hollow the stone."

In the German translation, the adverbs (diū, fortiter, saepe) appear as adjectives in conjunction with the substantiated infinitives.

Romance languages

The Romance languages , as daughter languages ​​of Latin, continue the ablative (with or without preposition) of the Latin gerund. It uses the instrumental ablative to denote the accompanying circumstances under which an action takes place. Docendo discimus : (ablative of dŏcēre "to teach"): "By teaching, by teaching, we learn."

The forms of modern Romance languages:

• Initial form : Latin: cantando (ablative from căntāre "to sing", "through singing")>
• Romanian: cântând ,
• Italian, Sardinian, Spanish, Portuguese: cantando ,
• Catalan: cantant ,
• Romansh: chantand (Engadine) and cantond (Obwaldisch),
• French: chantant ,
• Occitan : cantant .

French

The French gerund (le gérondif) and the present participle (middle word of the present, le participe présent ) belong to the ant forms, comparable to the ing forms in English.

In the development from Latin to French , the gerund and present participle have coincided aloud ( cantando > chantant; cantantem > chantant ). Therefore, the French gérondif today (on the synchronous level ) corresponds formally to the participe présent ( present participle ), which is   preceded by the preposition en .

Example:

• Il travaille en chantant . "He works and sings", "he sings while working."

The starting form for the formation of the gerund and the present participle in modern French is the 1st person plural of the present indicative (le présent de l'indicatif) of a verb.

Examples:

• chanter "singing"> nous chant ons "we sing"> (en) chant ant "singing".
• faire “do”> nous fais ons “we do”> (en) fais ant “make”.
• finir "quit"> nous finiss ons "we quit"> (en) finiss ant "quit".
• voir “see”> nous voy ons “we see”> (en) voy ant “seeing”.

Irregular formations have three verbs:

• être "to be"> (en) ét ant "to be".
• avoir "have"> (en) ay ant "having".
• savoir “to know”> (en) sach ant “to know ”.

The gérondif has two forms (les temps du gérondif) :

• le gérondif présent (usually called gérondif ) to express the simultaneity in relation to the main verb: en chantant "singing, while singing". Example: Il faisait toujours ses devoirs en chantant . "He always sang when he was doing his homework" (both actions take place at the same time).
• le gérondif passé to express the prematurity in relation to the main verb: en ayant chanté “having sung when he had sung”. This form is considered cumbersome and is avoided in modern parlance.

The gérondif in today's French has a temporal (temporal), conditional (conditional) or modal (relating to the manner) meaning.

• Temporal: En arrivant à la station de métro, Charles a rencontré un vieil ami . "When Karl arrived at the metro station, he met an old friend." (Simultaneous two events. The gérondif here stands for a temporal sentence). Quand Charles est arrivé à la station de métro ... "When Karl arrived at the metro station ..."
• conditional: En lisant ce livre vous comprendrez bientôt leproblemème . “If you read this book, you will soon understand the problem.” (Expression of a condition. The gérondif here stands for a conditional sentence (conditional sentence)). Si vous lisez ce livre ... "If you read this book ..."
• modal: En travaillant beaucoup, Jean a réussi à passer son examen . “Because Hans worked a lot, he was able to pass his exam.” “By working hard, Hans was able to pass his exam.” (The gérondif here reflects the manner of the action).

Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Occitan, Romanian

Formation of the gerund:

• Spanish: Add -ando / -iendo: cant ar "to sing"> cant ando , part ir "to depart"> part iendo .
• Italian: Add -ando / -endo: cant are > cant ando , part ire > part endo .
• Portuguese: Add -ando / -endo / -indo: cant ar > cant ando , vend er “sell”> vend endo , part ir > part indo .
• Occitan: Add -ant / -ent: cant are > cant ant , leg ir “read”> legiss ent , sent ir “feel”> sent ent .
• Romanian: Add -ând / ind: a lucr a "to work"> lucr ând , a merg e , "to go"> merg ând , a tăc ea "to be silent"> tăc ând , a fug i "to flee"> fug ind .

In some of the languages ​​mentioned, one of the tasks of the gerund is the realization of the imperfective aspect , which represents an action as not yet completed, currently in progress.

Examples:

• French: Le canal allait se perdant ( André Gide ). "The canal was lost, the canal gradually disappeared."
• Italian: Sto cantando . “I'm singing right now.” Il tempo va peggiorando . "The weather will be worse."
• Spanish: Estaba cantando . “I was singing.” Los precios van aumentando . "The prices keep rising."
• Portuguese: Estou escrevendo uma carta . “I'm writing a letter right now.” Ela ainda está dormindo . "She is still sleeping."

The gerund also serves to shorten or replace adverbial subordinate clauses that are introduced in German with , during, because, by, as, if, etc.

Examples:

• Italian: Vedendola, la riconosceresti . "If you would see (see) them, you would recognize them again" (conditional sentence "conditional sentence").
• Spanish: Tomando el tren llegarás más pronto . "If you take the train, you'll get there faster." (Expression of the mean: if, by that, by).
• Portuguese: Caminhando pela rua a vi . “When I was walking in the street, I saw her” (temporal clause).
• Occitan (reference Occitan): Partiguèron de la fèsta en menant ambe eles tota la gaietat . "You left the party and took all the happiness with you."
• Romanian: Ajungând acasă, el se desbrăcă. "When he got home, after he got home, he undressed."

Germanic languages

German

In older German , an inflected (declined) form of the infinitive mainly follows the preposition zu (zi, ze, zuo, z) .

• Old High German : nëman - zi nëmanne 'take - to take' (strong verb), zellen - zi zellenne '(he) count - to (he) count' (weak verb first class), salbōn - zi salbōnne , anoint - to anoint '(weak verb II class), habēn - zi habēnne ' have - to have '(weak verb III class). Sporadically next -enne also so end date , etc., or an identical with the infinitive form.
• Middle High German : nëmen - ze nëmen (n) e / ze nëmende; cells - ze cells (n) e / ze end of cells; ointments - ze ointments (n) e / ze anointing ones; have - ze have (n) e / ze have . The variant -ende, which is becoming increasingly popular, is explained as the effect of the present participle .
• Early New High German : nëmen - ze nëmen (n) e / ze nëmend (e); cells - ze cells (n) e / ze cellular (e); ointments - ze ointments (n) e / ze anointing (e); have - ze have (n) e / ze having (e). The forms on -en (n) e can be found in southern Alemannic, those on -ende have a focus on the Upper Rhine, and -end, -ent is Swabian. From the 14th to the 15th century there was a clear decline in use up to the complete disappearance in the Bavarian and Middle Franconian language areas; after 1500 the gerund is rarely reflected in written texts.

This gerund has a formal afterlife on the one hand in the East Alemannic and, limited to single verbs, some southern Alemannic dialects and on the other hand in Thuringian , Lower Hesse and in the adjacent parts of Upper Hesse , in Upper Franconian and Upper Saxon . In these dialects, after the ze, z that has become a particle , a special form of the infinitive (an "infinitive II") can occur.

• Recent Alemannic dialects: In the eastern half of Alemannia from Swabia in the north to northeastern Switzerland in the south, every verb is regularly formed after the infinitive particle z (e) with a form that differs from the infinitive. Normal verbs get the ending -id or -ed (originated from the mhd. -End ), for example assen - z ässid 'eat - to eat', mache - z machid 'make - to do'; Short verbs get mostly the ending -nd and loud in many dialects the vowel to , for example, do - such tüend such tönd such TOND u. Ä. 'to do', gaa / goo - z gänd, z gönd u. Ä. 'to go - to go', nä - z nänd ' to take - to take'. Limited to single verbs , the gerund also occurs in other southern Alemannic dialects, so tue - z tüe 'do - to do' in the Bern – Freiburg – western Lucerne area. It is limited to factual constructions in parts of the Valais, for example linde - z linden tüe ' to soften - put in water to soften' ( z linden < * ze lindenne or * ze lindende ).
• Recent Central German dialects: In Salzungen in Thuringia the morphological pairs are mach - ze mache, in Upper East Franconia mache - ze make 'do - do'.

Frisian

Old Frisian had a gerund on -ane or -ande, for example siunga ' to sing', to siungan (d) e 'to sing'. The form of this gerund is preserved in all contemporary Frisian languages as “n-infinitive” or “infinitive II” (West and North Frisian, for example, sjongen ), which, in addition to the “e” or “⊘ infinitive” or “infinitive I” “(For example West Frisian sjonge, North Frisian sjong ). In the course of linguistic history, however, it has formally coincided with the past participle , which goes back to Old Frisian -ande ( e.g. siungande , singing) and continues to function functionally today in the "Infinitive II".

In West Frisian in ferske te sjongen, Saterfrisian en Läid tou sjungen or in the North Frisian idiom of Föhr en Liitje tu sjongen 'to sing a song', sjongen / sjungen continues the old Frisian gerund to siungan (d) e . The West Frisian ik hear har sjongen, Saterfrisian ik heere hier sjungen and ik hiar ham sjongen 'I hear them singing', on the other hand, is based on the old Frisian past participle perfect siungande , also in cases such as West Frisian hy bliuw dea lizzen, Saterfrisian hi bleeu dood bilääsen and North Frisian hi bleew duad leien 'he stayed dead' or West Frisian hy komt oanrinnen, Sater Frisian hi kumt ounloopen and North Frisian hi komt uunluupen 'he comes (an) ran'.

English

In English , the gerund is formed by adding -ing to the infinitive : to read - reading, e.g. B. Reading is fun “Reading is fun”. Although the gerund today is formally the same as the present participle ( present participle “middle word of the present”), the syntax and semantics are different.

Examples:

• Climbing is dangerous. Climbing is dangerous.
• Swimming is easy. Swimming is easy.
• Climbing is good. Climbing is good.
• I stopped smoking. I stopped smoking.

In addition, the gerund can come after prepositions and thus has the syntactic function of a prepositional object:

• He is proud of working at this company.
• We should focus on making a new plan.
• This product is good for cleaning windows.

The formation of a gerund can include auxiliary verbs:

• Having worked at this company helps me to understand business processes much better.
• Being accepted by my colleagues is so important to me to survive in this job.
• Having been accepted by my colleagues still fills me with pride. (Now I am retired.)

This also applies to the function as a (prepositional) object:

• He is proud of working at this company.
• He is proud of having worked at this company. (Now he is retired.)
• He is proud of having been working at this company for more than twenty years.
• He is proud of being accepted and respected by his colleagues.
• He is proud of having been accepted and respected by his colleagues. (Now he is retired.)

After a series of verbs, e.g. B. admit, advise, anticipate, avoid, consider, delay, deny, discuss, enjoy, finish, give up, go on, imagine, keep, miss, postpone, practice, recall, recommend, regret, resist, resume, risk, stop, suggest, tolerate, try and understand is the gerund as an object.

The gerund sometimes competes with the infinitive. There may be differences in meaning.

• He stopped to read the newspaper . "He stopped to read the newspaper."
• He stopped reading the newspaper . "He stopped reading the newspaper."
• She tried to learn French . "She tried to learn French."
• Finding Russian too difficult she tried learning French . "Since she found Russian too difficult, she tried French."

Slavic languages

Morphologically speaking, the Slavic languages ​​do not know a gerund in the true sense of the word. However, the adverbial participles perform similar functions (and are also called gerunds in some grammars). In particular, they serve to form adverbials, as is also the case in English and the Romance languages:

• Она написала письмо, напевая песню (Russian). "She wrote a letter and sang a song (literally singing a song)."
• Scrisse una lettera, cantando una canzone (it.).
• Singing a song she wrote a letter.

Polish

In Polish there are two adverbial (also gerunds called): the only imperfective verbs (czasowniki niedokonane) formed Adverbialpartizip of simultaneity and that of perfective verbs (czasowniki dokonane) formed Adverbialpartizip of prematurity. They are immutable and, like the gerunds in the Romance languages, etc. a. the shortening of subordinate clauses. In order to be able to use adverbial participles, the predicate of the sentence and the adverbial participle must refer to a common subject.

Example: Czytając gazetę, słuchałem muzyki. "While I was reading the newspaper, I was listening to music."

The adverbial participles are mainly used in written language, the adverbial participle of prematurity is becoming increasingly rare.

The adverbial participle of simultaneity ( Imiesłów współczesny przysłówkowy, gerund of simultaneity):

Formation: The third person plural present tense ( czas teraźniejszy, present tense ) of an imperfective verb is given the ending -c .

• robić "do"> robią "they do"> robiąc "doing".
• czytać “read”> czytają “they read”> czytając “read”.
• iść “go”> idą “they go”> idąc “ go ”.
• Exception: być “to be”. będąc “being”.

Examples:

• Idąc do domu, spotkałem mojego przyjaciela . "When I went home (on the way home), I met my friend". (Stands for the temporal sentence : Kiedy szedłem do domu… “When I went home…”).
• Never mając czasu, never mogliśmy przyjść do ciebie. “Because we didn't have time, we couldn't come to you.” (Stands for the causal phrase : Ponieważ nie mieliśmy czasu… “Because we didn't have time…”).

The adverbial participle of prematurity ( Imiesłów uprzedni przysłówkowy, gerund of prematurity):

Education: The form is derived from the 3rd person singular masculine of the simple past ( czas przeszły, past). There are two cases to be distinguished.
1st case: Before the -ł [w] of the simple past there is a vowel: -ł is replaced by the ending -wszy [fʃ].

• kupić “buy”> kup i ł “he bought”> kupi wszy “bought”.

2nd case: There is a consonant before the -ł of the past tense: the ending -szy is added to -ł .

• pójść “to go”> posze d ł “he went”> poszedł szy “to have gone”.

Examples:

• Kupiwszy bukiet róż, mogłem pójść na urodziny. "Because (because) I bought the bouquet of roses, I could go to my birthday." (Stands for the causal phrase : Ponieważ kupiłem bukiet róż ... "Because (because) I bought the bouquet of roses ...") (A Temporal clause with jak, kiedy " als ").
• Przyszedłszy do biura, sekretarka napisała list do firmy handlowej w Warszawie. “When she came to the office (after arriving at the office), the secretary wrote a letter to a trading company in Warsaw.” (Stands for the temporal phrase : Kiedy przyszła do biura… “When she came into the office…”).

Other languages ​​to choose from

In the Turkologie (and assuming also in other disciplines of so-called. Altaistik ) as well as in the grammar of Lithuanian is the term used for a number of gerund adverbial used Verbableitungen (d. H. Converbs ).

Lithuanian

In Lithuanian, four verbal adverbs are called gerunds (padalyvis) :

Tense	suffix
present	-ant, -int
future	-siant
unique past	-us
repeated past	-davus

The gerunds of the present and the unique past, similar to the Latin gerunds, are often used for adverbial accompanying clauses (so-called adverbial gerunds ):

• Auštant išėjau. " When it was meeting, I went away." (Simultaneity)
• Man išėjus aušo. " After I left, it met." (Prematurity)

The subject of the accompanying clause is never identical to the subject of the main clause, otherwise participles or the adverbial participle are used. The logical subject in the gerund construction is in the dative.

In addition, all gerunds can be used as attributive gerunds . They can then often be translated into German with the infinitive, a participle or the subjunctive I:

• Moteris pamatė vyrą ateinant . “The woman saw her / a man approaching .” (Other translation: “The woman saw that a man was approaching.” → Simultaneousness)
• Radau visus sumigus . "I found everyone asleep ." ("I found that everyone was asleep." → Prematurity)
• Girdėjau jį priilsdavus tenai. "I heard that he used to rest there ." (Prematurity, repeated action)
• Sako ir tavo bernelį netrukus atjosiant . "He said your boy would soon come ridden too ." (Future)

Turkish

In Turkish following Verbaladverbien be (ULAC) as gerunds called:

suffix	shape	possible translation
-yarak	bağırarak	screaming
-e	diye	tellingly
-e -e	ağlaya ağlaya diye diye	constantly crying saying
-eli	geleli	since came
-ince	bitince	once finished
-ip	gelip	came and ...
iken	yemekte iken (= yemekteyken)	during the meal
-meden	yemeden	without eating

Example sentences:

• "Neredesin?" Diye bağırdı - He / She / It shouted: "Where are you?"
• Çocuk ağlaya ağlaya eve geldi - The child came home crying all the time.
• Çocuk bağırarak geldi - The child came screaming.
• Ders bitince kahve içeceğim - When class is over, I'll have coffee.
• Dün akşam bir şey yemeden yattım - Last night I lay down without having eaten anything.
• Eve gidip duş yapacağım - I'll go home and take a shower.
• Ülkü geleli bir saat oldu - It's been an hour since Ülkü came.
• Yemekteyken konuşma - Do not speak while you are eating.

See also

• Transgressive
• Infinite verb forms in the Spanish language

Web links

Wikibooks: Gerundium  - learning and teaching materials

Wiktionary: Gerund  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

1. ↑ The form gerund- i um instead of gerund-um is probably an analog formation after particĭp- i um.
2. ↑ Hadumod Bußmann (ed.) With the assistance of Hartmut Lauffer: Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. 4th, revised and bibliographically supplemented edition. Kröner, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-520-45204-7 , article Gerundium .
3. ↑ The emergence of the gerund from the gerundive can be imagined as follows: cupiditās librī legendī (literally: "Desire for a book to be read") became cupiditas legendi ("Desire for something to be read" and from this "Desire for reading"). Examples with translation from: F. Adami and Eduard Bornemann: Latin language teaching (=  Bornemann. Latin teaching work. Part 3). 8th edition. Hirschgraben-Verlag, Frankfurt 1970, p. 163.
4. ↑ Compare the similar terms ant form in French and ing form in English.
5. ^ Adolf Lamprecht: Grammar of the English language. New version . 8th completely revised and expanded edition. Cornelsen-Velhagen & Klasing 1986, ISBN 3-464-00644-1 , pp. 5, 7.
6. ↑ An adverbial participle indicates the circumstances under which the action the verb is expressing takes place. It is not inflected (is not declined). Jolanta Rudolph: Żadnych granic. Polish A to Z . Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-89657-880-4 , p. 328.
7. ^ Hermann Throm: Latin grammar . 5th edition (= unchanged reprint of the 1st edition). Pädagogischer Verlag Schwann, Düsseldorf 1970, pp. 58, 68, 195–199.
   Hermann Throm: Outline of the Latin Syntax. 1st chapter. (= Fundamentum Latinum ). Pädagogischer Verlag Schwann, Düsseldorf 1959, pp. 87–91. (Hermann Throm (1903–1985) was a high school professor at the Kurfürst-Friedrich-Gymnasium in Heidelberg).
8. ^ Heinrich Lausberg: Romance Linguistics . Form theory 2nd part (= Göschen Collection, Volume 1200 / 1200a). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1962, pp. 198-202.
   Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke: Grammar of the Romance languages. Volume 3: Romance Syntax . Verlag O. R. Reisland, Leipzig 1899, p. 534. (Reprographic reprint: Verlag Olms, Hildesheim / New York 1972, ISBN 978-3-487-04239-8 ).
9. ↑ The term gérondif, borrowed from the Latin gerundivum in the 16th century , is actually misleading, since it is not the gerundive that is referred to in French as adjectif verbal .
10. ↑ In the older French language (before 1600) the gerund could also be used with other prepositions such as B. à, de, par, pour and sans can be combined. Even without a preposition, the gerund appeared until the 17th century. Ernst Gamillscheg: Historical French Syntax . Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen, 1957, pp. 445-447.
11. ^ Maurice Grevisse: Le bon usage. Grammaire française. 12th edition, edited by André Goosse. Éditions Duculot, Paris / Gembloux, 1986, p. 1348, § 892.
12. ↑ One uses ayant + participe passé (middle word of the past, past participle): Ayant fait ses devoirs… "as (since) he had done his tasks", or a subordinate clause with a conjunction such as B. quand, comme, après que or an infinitive construction: Après avoir fait ses devoirs, il quitta (il a quitté) la maison . "After he had done his chores, he left the house."
13. ↑ Hans-Wilhelm Klein and Hartmut Kleineidam: Études françaises: Grundgrammatik . Ernst Klett Schulbuchverlag, Stuttgart 1989, pp. 130–132.
14. ↑ Quoted in: Gerhard Rohlfs: Vom Vulgärlatein zum Altfranzösischen (= collection of short textbooks on Romance languages ​​and literatures . Volume 15). 3rd, improved edition. Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1968, p. 175.
15. ↑ Example and translation from: Fatima Viegas Figueiredo Brauer, Uwe Brauer: Langenscheidts Practical Textbook Portuguese (= Langenscheidts Practical Textbooks ). 8th edition. Langenscheidt, Berlin a. a. 1986, ISBN 3-468-26270-1 , p. 61.
16. ↑ Example and translation from: Peter Cichon: Introduction to the Occitan Language (= library of Romance language textbooks . Volume 4). 2nd, corrected edition. Romanistischer Verlag, Bonn 2002, ISBN 3-86143-132-7 , p. 96. (For the term “Reference Occitan” see p. 20).
17. ↑ Example and translation from: Ion Popinceanu: Romanian elementary grammar with exercise texts . 2nd, improved edition. Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1962, p. 88.
18. ^ Wilhelm Braune: Old High German Grammar (= collection of short grammars of Germanic dialects. Series A. Volume 5 ). 13th edition edited by Hans Eggers. Niemeyer, Tübingen 1975, § 315.
19. ^ Hermann Paul: Middle High German Grammar (= collection of short grammars of Germanic dialects. Series A. Volume 2 ). 23rd edition revised by Peter Wiehl and Siegfried Grosse. Niemeyer, Tübingen 1989, § 237, 240.
20. ^ Robert Peter Ebert, Oskar Reichmann, Hans-Joachim Solms and Klaus-Peter Wegera: Early New High German Grammar (= collection of short grammars of Germanic dialects. Series A. Volume 12 ). Niemeyer, Tübingen 1993, § M 85.
21. ↑ For details see Südwestdeutscher Sprachatlas III / 1 303; Language Atlas of Bavarian Swabia VI 16; Linguistic Atlas of German Switzerland III 1, 3, 55; Schweizerisches Idiotikon XVII 4 ff., Article zue (there under the meaning of B3, Col. 73 ff., With the corresponding note, Col. 79 f.).
22. ^ Wiktor Maximowitsch Schirmunski : Deutsche Mundartkunde. Edited and commented by Larissa Naiditsch. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main 2010, p. 584 f.
23. ↑ ^{a b} Jarich Hoekstra : The Syntax of Infinitives in Frisian (=  . Fryske Akademy Series Volume 841). Dissertation, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. Fryske Akademy, Ljouwert / Leeuwarden 1997.
24. ↑ Explanations of words: czasownik "verb, verb", niedokonane "unfinished, imperfective", imiesłów ([-swuf], w as in English wall) "participle, middle word", współczesny "present", przysłówek [pʃ] "adverb, circumstance word ”, Przysłówkowy “ adverbial ”, teraz [s]“ now ”, teraźniejszy “ present ”, upszedni “ previous ”, przesły “ past ”.
25. ^ Norbert Damerau: Polish grammar (= Göschen collection. Volume 2808). 2nd, unchanged edition. Verlag Walter de Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 1992, ISBN 3-11-006211-9 , pp. 99-100.
    Erika Worbs: Witaj Polsko! Grammatical booklet. Universum Verlag, Wiesbaden 2009, ISBN 978-3-89869-241-0 , pp. 79-80.
    Barbara Bartnicka, Björn Hansen, Wojtek Klemm, Volker Lehmann, Halina Satkiewicz: Grammar of Polish (=  Slavolinguistica . Volume 5). Verlag Otto Sagner, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-87690-845-0 , pp. 439-440.
26. ↑ The initial form is not są "they are", but the stem of the infinitive.
27. ↑ Polish sentences for both forms of the gerund from: Viktor Falkenhahn and Walter Zielke: Grammar of the Polish language . People and knowledge Volkseigener Verlag, Berlin 1957, p. 161.
    Monika Skibicki: Polish grammar. Helmut Buske Verlag, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-87548-435-9 , pp. 364–365.,
    Monika Skibicki: Grammar Exercise Book : Polish . Helmut Buske Verlag, Hamburg 2011, ISBN 978-3-87548-575-2 , pp. 125-128.
28. ^ Alfred Senn: Handbook of the Lithuanian language. Volume 1. Grammar. Carl Winter University Press, Heidelberg 1966.
29. ^ Margarete I. Ersen-Rasch: Turkish grammar. Hueber Verlag, Ismaning 2001, ISBN 3-19-005185-2 .
30. ↑ Algimantas Urbanavičius: Gerbkime žodį! ( online ( Memento of the original from July 22, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. ).