Rice wine

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sake is a Japanese rice wine
Advertising poster for sake, Japan around 1916
Small-scale production of rice wine from red rice

Rice wine is an alcoholic beverage produced by the saccharification and alcoholic fermentation of rice or rice starch with an alcohol content of 5 to over 20%. It can be colorless, from golden yellow to nut brown or red, and clear or cloudy. It is a name for alcoholic beverages from Asian countries that are made exclusively or mainly from rice . Rice wine is sometimes viewed as beer because it is made from saccharified starch. In contrast to beers according to the European brewing tradition, rice wine is usually saccharified and fermented in a container at the same time. In contrast to rice brandy, it is not distilled.

history

The origins of rice wine production in modern-day China date back to around 4,000 BC. Assumed. As early as 1,000 BC Fermentation of grain using starter cultures with molds was widespread in BC. Detailed information on the production of rice wine are from the China of the Spring and Autumn period in the 8th to the 5th century. BC, from Korea from the first century before to the second century after the beginning of the Christian era, and from Japan in the third century. It is believed that the manufacturing process spread from China to the east and south of Asia.

Manufacturing

For the preparation of rice wine, cooked sticky rice is used as the basis , for some types also rice flour or long grain rice. For some rice wines, red or black rice is preferred. The production of rice wine takes place by saccharifying the starch and fermenting the resulting simple sugars to alcohol in a container. The main fermentation, which lasts several days, is usually followed by a longer phase of secondary fermentation. In Asia, malting was rarely used in the traditional production of alcoholic beverages, instead starter cultures consisting of fermented grain were developed. They contain molds, which convert starch into sugar, yeasts, which convert sugar into alcohol, and lactic acid bacteria , which are involved in the formation of numerous flavoring substances. The microbiological composition of the starter cultures used is very different, only the well-known Japanese, Chinese and Korean rice wines and some industrially produced rice wines from other countries are standardized.

Rice wines by country of origin

China

Shaoxing rice wine Huadiaojiu , aged 10 years
Rice wine maturing in jugs, Wuzhen, China

The production of rice wine has a tradition in China that goes back thousands of years. Huangjiu ( Chinese  黃酒  /  黄酒 , Pinyin huángjiǔ ) are wines made from grains, in most cases rice, which are fermented with different microorganisms and in different processes. Huangjiu takes the place of wine in Europe in Chinese culture.

Among the Chinese wines made from rice, Shaoxing rice wine ( 紹興酒  /  绍兴酒 , shàoxīngjiǔ ) is the best known and is considered to be of particularly good quality. Shaoxing rice wine is often warmed to a temperature of 35 to 40 ° C in winter before consumption and drunk from rice bowls as an aperitif or digestif, in summer it is usually drunk cold, also with ice cubes. It is widely used in Chinese cuisine, for example for marinating meat, and is used in traditional Chinese medicine. It is one of the most famous rice wines in all of China and internationally and is exported to more than 50 countries. Shaoxing rice wine is divided into more than ten types, primarily according to the content of sugar and alcohol. The most important, in order of increasing sugar content, are Yuanhongjiu, Jiafanjiu, Huadiaojiu, Shanniangjiu and Xiangxuejiu.

Mijiu ( 米酒 , mǐjiǔ ) is an ordinary clear and sweet Huangjiu with an alcohol content of 12 to 20%. It is often compared to sake. In the inexpensive varieties it is offered as a kitchen ingredient and can contain salt to avoid the Chinese alcohol tax.

Choujiu ( 稠酒 , chóujiǔ ) is a cloudy rice wine. It is considered the most original of today's rice wines and its production is already documented for the Tang dynasty . It is primarily produced in the area around the city of Xi'an ( 西安市 ).

India

India knows a variety of beverages made from fermented rice, which are produced by different ethnic groups, mostly in peasant households for their own needs. The focus of production is in the states of the Himalayan belt in the far north-east of the country. The recipes are consistently similar to those of the ethnic groups in neighboring Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet. The fermentation process only takes three to four days in summer and 6 to 7 days in winter, followed by a few days of secondary fermentation, resulting in a sweet, low-alcohol drink.

  • Apong is made by almost all ethnic groups in the state of Arunachal Pradesh and by the Mishing in northern Assam. The starter culture Apop Pitha contains fermented rice as well as a variety of different leaves and herbs. The rice is fermented for three to five days, and the liquid obtained is diluted with water and drunk as an apong . The drink therefore has a particularly low alcohol content; it is inconsistently referred to in the literature as rice wine or rice beer.
  • Atingba is a rice wine with a sweet and sour taste from the state of Manipur , it is often distilled to make rice schnapps Yu .

Indonesia

Brem is fermented grain that is particularly produced on the Indonesian island of Bali . To make it, sticky rice, and occasionally another grain or manioc , is fermented for up to five days at room temperature. The resulting product is called tapé or, if it consists of fermented rice, tapé ketan. Tapé ketan is filtered and the filtrate is either boiled down to obtain the alcoholic foods Brem Madium or Brem Wonogiri , or matured for 6 to 7 months in closed containers, decanted and bottled. Brem is a clear, brownish rice wine with an alcohol content of around 6% and has a sweet and slightly sour taste.

Japan

Nigorizake, unfiltered sake

Sake ( Japanese : 酒 , kana さ け , /sɑ.kɛ/) is a Japanese rice wine that is considered a national drink in Japan and a synonym for rice wine around the world. Sake is a rice wine with 15 to 20% alcohol content, depending on the type of filtering and maturation it is colorless to amber and clear or cloudy. To make it, rice is first polished to remove unwanted proteins and fats from the inner starch body. The more material is removed and discarded in this work step, the higher quality the finished rice wine is. The polished rice is boiled and, after cooling, inoculated with the starter culture Kōji made from fermented rice . After a week of fermentation, three more cooked and fermented rice is added; the entire fermentation process takes three to four weeks. At the end, high-percentage alcohol is added to the mash in order to dissolve ingredients from the sediments of certain high-quality varieties, or to increase the product volume in the case of cheap varieties. A longer period of ripening follows, then the rice wine is filtered with charcoal, pasteurized and filled into bottles or barrels.

There is an unmanageable variety of variations in the production of starter cultures, different qualities of raw materials, deviations in the production process up to the duration and type of ripening. This is how numerous products are created, some of which have their own names; they may or may not fall under the generic term “sake”. Futsū-shu ( 普通 酒 ) is common sake and is roughly comparable to the quality of "table wine". Tokutei meishō-shu ( 特定 名称 酒 ) describes sake that is of higher quality due to particularly intensive polishing of the rice grains or deviations in the fermentation process. These quality products have a number of proper names for the different quality levels.

Namazake ( 生 酒 ), unpasteurized sake that must be stored in a cool place, nigorizake ( 濁 り 酒 ), cloudy, unfiltered sake, koshu ( 古 酒 ), matured sake, and taruzake ( 樽 酒 ), sake matured in wooden barrels, are considered sake. In addition to sake, there are a number of Japanese rice wines of their own. These include Amazake ( 甘 酒 ), a sweet, low-alcohol rice wine, and Kuroshu ( 黒 酒 ), made from unpolished rice. Toso ( 屠 蘇 ) is a sake mixed with medicinal herbs, which is ceremonially drunk for the New Year celebrations.

Mirin ( Japanese 味 醂 / 味 淋 , kana み り ん ) is a clear or cloudy rice wine made similar to sake with a very high sugar content and an alcohol content of 12 to 16%, which is used almost exclusively as a kitchen ingredient. Real mirin ( hon mirin ) is also drunk, along with salted mirin ( shio mirin ) and alcohol-free mirin ( shin mirin ).

Korea

Mackoli in the can, carbonated

The production of rice wine has a very long tradition in Korea . Korean rice wines largely follow the Chinese and Japanese production processes, but fruits, flowers or herbs are added more often than there to flavor them. To produce Korean rice wines, sticky rice is fermented with the Nuruk starter culture, which was previously made from rice and is now made from wheat . After fermentation, the mash is pressed and the liquid is filtered, matured and bottled. The cloudy Korean rice wines are called Takju, filtered rice wines are called Vakju.

The most famous Vakju is the Cheongju ( Korean 청하 ; Hanja : 淸 河 ), a clear rice wine. A variant of Cheongju is Beopju ( Hangul 법주 / Hanja 法 酒 ) with about 15% alcohol, which is produced in the city of Gyeongju and has been recognized by the government as a cultural heritage.

Makgeolli (also Makkoli, 막걸리 ) and Gamju ( 감주 or 단술 / 甘 酒 ) are examples of cloudy Korean rice wines with an alcohol content of 5 to 8%. Makkoli has an alcohol content of 6.5 to 7% and is sometimes simply called Takju as Korea's most famous cloudy rice wine. Gamju is fermented without saccharification and therefore has a lower alcohol content and is sweeter.

Malaysia

Traditional method of rice wine production in Malaysia , fermented rice on leaves at the top right

Tapai is the name for fermented glutinous rice ( Tapai pulut ) or fermented manioc ( Tapai ubi ), which are produced as a food containing alcohol. To do this, the cooked rice is inoculated with a starter culture and fermented for one to three days at room temperature. For the production of the rice wine of the same name, the main fermentation time is extended to a week, then rice wine or brandy is added to increase the alcohol content and thus slow down the fermentation. After another 25 days of secondary fermentation, the pink rice wine is strained.

Nepal

In Nepal , Jand (also Jaand ) is brewed from various types of grain, millet , maize , wheat and rice, using starter cultures with molds , yeast and lactic acid bacteria . This alcoholic drink contains four to 15% alcohol, depending on the duration of fermentation, from a week to several months. It is commonly referred to as grain beer, occasionally rice wine. As fermentation progresses, nigar , a sweet-tasting liquid , settles in the fermentation tank . It is very similar to Japanese sake and is known as grain wine or, if rice was the basic ingredient, rice wine.

Philippines

Tapuy or Tapay is a Filipino rice wine that originally comes from the Ifugao Province. To make it, cooked sticky rice, preferably red varieties, is dusted with the powdered starter culture Bubod , which consists of fermented sticky rice and ginger, and fermented in covered clay pots for two weeks. The mass is then pasteurized for 30 minutes , stored for at least 6 weeks, and the liquid is decanted . After another pasteurization, the drink is filled into bottles. Tapuy is sweet, has a slightly sour taste and an alcohol content of 13.5 to 19%. Pangasi is produced the same way in northwestern Mindanao.

Thailand

Production of rice wine in Cambodia , 2012

Sato , also known as Satho or Satoh and under the names Krachae and Nam-Khao , is a traditional Thai rice wine. It originally comes from the Isan region in northeastern Thailand, where it has been made and consumed since ancient times. It was the most popular alcoholic drink in Thailand for centuries and is fermented from white or black rice using balls of fermented rice as starter cultures, the local loog pang , or powdered cultures of Chinese origin. The manufacturing process is very similar to that of Chinese Shaoxing rice wine.

In the past, sato was made in most households for their own needs, today most people resort to purchased alcoholic beverages because of the high expenditure. The rice wine is often produced in small farms, the traditional recipes are considered family secrets. Illegally produced sato is often just a raw material for blackened rice schnapps. Today there is also an industrial production of rice wine, which meets the needs of the urban population, and the products of the small and often illegal production are mainly consumed in the countryside and by the poor. Compared to beer and spirits, the importance of sato has declined sharply since the 1970s. The drink has an alcohol content of up to 15%.

Vietnam

Rượu Cần in a shop in Vung Tau, Vietnam

Rice wine is very popular in Vietnam and is often made in the countryside under difficult conditions on small farms. As a result, there is a large number of rice wines whose recipes can be very different despite having the same name. They all have names that begin with Rượu , the Vietnamese word for alcohol. This first part of the name can also have spirits and solid meals with alcohol content.

Rượu Cần is a product from the central highlands of Vietnam and is made from long grain rice, glutinous rice, corn or cassava . It can contain different herbs, leaves or roots, the composition of which changes depending on the ethnic group or the region. Rượu Cần is both the wine and the brandy distilled from it.

Rượu Nếp consists of yeast-fermented rice and is purple or yellow depending on the type of rice used. It can have a pudding-like consistency and is then eaten with a spoon or consumed in liquid form as rice wine. Here, too, Rượu Nếp is used not only to refer to rice wine, but also to schnapps made from it. Rượu Nếp is originally from North Vietnam, but is now known across the country. Rượu Nếp Nương comes from the northwest and is made by an ethnic minority from a type of sticky rice that is only grown there. Rượu Nếp Than is purple-colored fermented rice from the Mekong Delta, it is usually eaten in its thick liquid form, or drunk filtered as wine, and not distilled.

Rượu Rắn, the snakes are mostly not cobras, but have only been prepared accordingly

Rượu Rắn is the Vietnamese name for snake brandy . As a result of the distinction between rice wine and rice schnapps, which is not common in Vietnam, the alcoholic liquid used for snake brandy is often referred to as "rice wine" and the product as "snake wine", but it can always be brandy or vinegar. These beverages with alleged medicinal benefits contain whole snakes, scorpions or birds, or parts of the body, blood and other body fluids from snakes.

literature

  • Kofi E. Aidoo, MJ Robert Nout: Functional Yeasts and Molds in Fermented Foods and Beverages. In: Jyoti Prakash Tamang, Kasipathy Kailasapathy (Ed.): Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 2010, ISBN 978-1-4200-9495-4 , pp. 127-148.
  • Faxin Huang, David Tiande Cai, Wai-Kit Nip: Chinese Wines: Jiu. In: YH Hui (Ed.): Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering. Volume 4, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 2006, ISBN 0-8493-9849-5 , Chapter 173.
  • Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association (Ed.): A Comprehensive Guide to Japanese Sake. Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association, Tokyo 2011, online PDF 1.3 MB, accessed February 11, 2014.
  • Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. In: Alan J. Buglass (Ed.): Handbook of Alcoholic Beverages. Technical, Analytical and Nutritional Aspects. 2 volumes, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester 2011, ISBN 978-0-470-51202-9 , pp. 63-454.
  • Jyoti Prakash Tamang: Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks. In: Jyoti Prakash Tamang, Kasipathy Kailasapathy (Ed.): Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 2010, ISBN 978-1-4200-9495-4 , pp. 85-125.
  • Jyoti Prakash Tamang: Himalayan Fermented Foods. Microbiology, Nutrition, and Ethnic Values. CRC Press, Boca Raton FL 2010, ISBN 978-1-4200-9324-7 , pp. 169-198.
  • Jyoti Prakash Tamang, Delwen Samuel: Dietary Cultures and Antiquity of Fermented Foods and Beverages. In: Jyoti Prakash Tamang, Kasipathy Kailasapathy (Ed.): Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 2010, ISBN 978-1-4200-9495-4 , pp. 1-40.

Web links

Commons : Rice Wine  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: rice wine  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b Jyoti Prakash Tamang, Delwen Samuel: Dietary Cultures and Antiquity of Fermented Foods and Beverages. Pp. 26-27.
  2. ↑ Faxin Huang, David Tiande Cai, Wai-Kit Nip: Chinese Wines: Jiu. P. 3.
  3. ↑ Faxin Huang, David Tiande Cai, Wai-Kit Nip: Chinese Wines: Jiu. P. 23.
  4. ↑ a b Faxin Huang, David Tiande Cai, Wai-Kit Nip: Chinese Wines: Jiu. P. 32.
  5. ↑ a b E. N. Anderson: Zhejiang (Chekiang) Cuisine. In: Solomon H. Katz, William Woys Weaver (Eds.): Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, NY 2003, ISBN 0-684-80565-0 , p. 398.
  6. ↑ Maggie Beale: The Emperor's Tribute. In: The Peninsula. Volume 7, Number 2, 2010, pp. 110–112, digitized version http: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.pagegangster.com%2Fp%2Fdhmx5%2F112%2F~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D, accessed on February 9, 2014.
  7. ↑ Faxin Huang, David Tiande Cai, Wai-Kit Nip: Chinese Wines: Jiu. Pp. 34-35.
  8. ↑ a b c Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. P. 212.
  9. ↑ a b c Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. P. 213.
  10. ^ Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. Pp. 543-544.
  11. ↑ Barnali Gogoi, Mayurakhi Dutta, Prodyut Mondal: Various Ethno Medicinal Plants used in the Preparation of Apong, a Traditional Beverage use by Mising Tribe of upper Assam. In: Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science. Volume 3, Number 4 (Supplement 1), 2013, pp. S85 – S88
  12. ^ AJ Das, SC Deka: Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India. In: International Food Research Journal. Volume 19, number 2, 2012, ISSN  1985-4668 , p. 387, online PDF 515 kB, accessed on February 12, 2014.
  13. ^ AJ Das, SC Deka, T. Miyaji: Methodology of rice beer preparation and various plant materials used in starter culture preparation by some tribal communities of North-East India: A survey. In: International Food Research Journal. Volume 19, Number 1, 2012, ISSN  1985-4668 , pp. 103-104, online PDF 1.9 MB, accessed on February 12, 2014.
  14. ↑ Jyoti Prakash Tamang, Graham H. Fleet: Yeasts Diversity in Fermented Foods and Beverages. In: T. Satyanarayana, Gotthard Kunze (Ed.): Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications. Springer Science + Business Media 2009, ISBN 978-1-4020-8291-7 , p. 173.
  15. ↑ K. Jeyaram et al .: Molecular identification of yeast species associated with 'Hamei' - A traditional starter used for rice wine production in Manipur, India. In: International Journal of Food Microbiology. Volume 124, Number 2, 2008, pp. 115-116, doi : 10.1016 / j.ijfoodmicro.2008.02.029 .
  16. ↑ K. Jeyaram et al: Traditional fermented Foods of Manipur. In: Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. Volume 8, number 1, 2009, ISSN  0972-5938 , pp. 119-120, online PDF , accessed on February 14, 2014.
  17. ↑ Jyoti Prakash Tamang: Himalayan Fermented Foods. Microbiology, Nutrition, and Ethnic Values. P. 210.
  18. ↑ a b c Jyoti Prakash Tamang: Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks. P. 107.
  19. ↑ IN Sujaya include: Identification and characterization of yeasts in brem, a traditional Balinese rice wine. In: World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. Volume 20, number 2, pp. 143-150, doi : 10.1023 / B: WIBI.0000021727.69508.19 .
  20. ↑ Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association (Ed.): A Comprehensive Guide to Japanese Sake. P. 16.
  21. ↑ Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association (Ed.): A Comprehensive Guide to Japanese Sake. Pp. 5-6.
  22. ↑ Jyoti Prakash Tamang: Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks. Pp. 105-106.
  23. ^ Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. Pp. 216-217.
  24. ↑ a b c Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. P. 217.
  25. ^ A b Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. P. 218.
  26. ^ Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. Pp. 217-218.
  27. ^ Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. P. 216.
  28. ↑ Naomichi Ishige: Japan. In: Kenneth F. Kiple, Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas (ed.): The Cambridge World History of Food, Volume 2. ISBN 978-0-521-59128-7 , p. 1178.
  29. ↑ Jyoti Prakash Tamang: Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks. P. 106.
  30. ^ Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. Pp. 214-216.
  31. ^ Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. P. 214.
  32. ^ Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. Pp. 213-214.
  33. ↑ a b Jyoti Prakash Tamang: Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks. P. 104.
  34. ↑ Basanta Kumar Rai: Essentials of Industrial Microbiology. ISBN 978-1-300-13701-6 , pp. 382-383, 5.8 MB, accessed February 11, 2014.
  35. ↑ Jiming Li: Rice as Food. In: Solomon H. Katz, William Woys Weaver (Eds.): Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, NY 2003, Volume 3, ISBN 0-684-80567-7 , p. 201.
  36. ↑ Inderjeet K. Virmani: Home Chefs of the World. Rice and Rice-Based Recipes. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Manila 1991, ISBN 971-22-0023-X , p. 37.
  37. ^ A b Priscilla C. Sanchez et al: Nonwaxy Rice for Tapuy (Rice Wine) Production. In: Cereal Chemistry. Volume 65, number 3, p. 240, online PDF 820 kB, accessed on February 10, 2014.
  38. ↑ Jyoti Prakash Tamang: Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks. P. 93.
  39. ^ Kofi E. Aidoo, MJ Robert Nout: Functional Yeasts and Molds in Fermented Foods and Beverages. Pp. 136-137.
  40. ↑ Apichaya Taechavasonyoo, Jiraporn Thaniyavarn, Chulee Yompakdee: Identification of the molds and yeasts characteristic of a superior loogpang, starter of thai rice-based alcoholic beverage sato. In: Asian Journal of Food and Agro-Industry. Volume 6, Number 1, 2013, ISSN  1906-3040 , pp. 24-25.
  41. ↑ Likit Sirisantimethakom et al: Volatile Compounds of a Traditional Thai Rice Wine. In: Biotechnology. Volume 7, number 3, pp. 505-513, 200, doi : 10.3923 / biotech.2008.505.513 .
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  44. ↑ Dirk W. Lachenmeier et al .: The Quality of Alcohol Products in Vietnam and Its Implications for Public Health. In: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Volume 6, Number 8, 2009, pp. 2091-2092, doi : 10.3390 / ijerph6082090 .
  45. ^ A b Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass, Chang Gook Lee: Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks. Pp. 220-221.
  46. ↑ Jyoti Prakash Tamang: Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks. P. 100.
  47. ↑ Thomas Ziegler: Research into biodiversity in the Vietnam project of the Cologne Zoo: The amphibians and reptiles of Phong Nha-Ke Bang. In: Journal of the Cologne Zoo. Volume 47, Issue 4, 2004, ISSN  0375-5290 , pp. 147-171, online PDF 2.3 MB, accessed on February 10, 2014.
  48. ↑ Ruchira Somaweera, Nilusha Somaweera: Serpents in jars: the snake wine industry in Vietnam. In: Journal of Threatened Taxa. Volume 2, number 11, 2010, ISSN  0974-7893 , p. 1252.
  49. ↑ Ruchira Somaweera, Nilusha Somaweera: Serpents in jars: the snake wine industry in Vietnam. P. 1253.