Stotra

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Illustration from a Vishnusahasranama manuscript from 1690

Stotras (also Stavas or Stutis ) are religious texts of Hinduism that are sung or recited. It is in these texts to Sanskrit - hymns . A simplified Sanskrit is often used in the stotras. Stotras contain rhymes , alliterations , meters, and refrains . The texts generally represent hymns that worship and praise a particular deity , but there are also other stotras that e.g. B. Praise saints or teachers like Shankara . Well-known stotras are the songs of Gitagovinda .

Nama stotras are lists of names, properties, attributes and descriptions of a particular deity. These are often recited in temples. Nama stotras, for example, are contained in the Brahmanda Purana .

Shri Maruti ( Hanuman ) -Stotra

There are many different types of stotras in Indian literature , some depicting formulaic prayers while others are elaborate, complex poems. In general, however, it is devotional poetry , for the most part directly addressing a deity. Many stotras are attributed to famous personalities such as Shankara, Vedanta Deshika or Abhinavagupta , but the authors are often anonymous.

A large part of the stotras is addressed to the main deities Shiva , Vishnu or the goddess ( Mahadevi , Lakshmi , Durga etc.) or to other important deities such as Surya , Ganesha and the planets. Almost every Hindu deity has its own stotras. Apart from stotras to these gods, there are also stotras that sing about events such as Shiva's Tandava or places of pilgrimage (e.g. the Ganges ) and spiritual teachers. In addition to these concrete stotras, there are also those that describe abstract, philosophical ideas and realities.

The stotras are not only differentiated according to the respective deities, but they can also be differentiated according to different purposes. B. own stotras for pujas , stotras that accompany the ritual awakening of the deity in the morning or stotras that serve to forgive sins. In general, stotras on deities also serve worldly purposes such as invocation for protection, health and wealth. At the end of a stotra there are mostly verses called phalashrutis . These provide information about the function of the respective stotra and the way in which it is to be recited. The phalashrutis describe the usefulness of the stotra and there may also be descriptions of how often a stotra is to be recited. This suggests that stotras have functions similar to mantras .

Stotras, which are recited in Sanskrit both publicly and privately, are one of the main forms of using Sanskrit texts in the Hindu religion.

Relationship with Vedic hymns

Vedic hymns and the later stotras seem to be more closely related. In the Samaveda there are hymns which are also called stotras, and these hymns are sung like the later stotras. Both have in common the praise, the invocation of the power of a single deity and the use of vocatives , blessings and homages. Both echoes and references to stories about the gods and their heroics appear in both, and the texts sometimes contain explanations of their usefulness, e.g. B. Wealth or Victory.

Despite these similarities, there are also great differences between Vedic hymns and the later Stotras. First, the deities of the Vedic hymns are different from those of the stotras, and the theology and liturgy referred to are also different. For example, non-Vedic stotras are used to visualize murtis (temple statues) and they are related to the post-Vedic kavyas ( Sanskrit poetry ). In addition, the theology of the stotras is to be regarded as devotional, while the Vedic hymns of the Mimamsa school are interpreted to mean that they recommend certain actions to the listener and discourage him from committing others. Vedic hymns are here viewed as atharvada , an opinion that is in opposition to a devotional interpretation.

Since Vedic hymns and stotras are very different, they are not considered a form of literature, but they have a relationship and are both considered prayer and praise.

Stotras in the Ramayana and Mahabharata

In the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are a number of Stotras, although these are probably among the younger layers of the epics. Some stotras even refer to the entire narrative of the respective scriptures.

In the Ramayana there is a well-known stotra, the Adityahrdaya . The story of this stotra is as follows: Rama is afraid during the battle with the demon Ravana , whereupon Saint Agastya teaches him to recite a stotra for the sun god Aditya . After reciting this with a view of the sun, Rama recovers and defeats Ravana in battle.

In the Mahabharata there are also widespread stotras, e.g. B. Durgastava , which is common in seven versions, and Durgastotra , both addressed to the goddess Durga , and the Vishnusahasranama , a famous Namastotra to Vishnu .

The hymns of the Mahabharata, which are addressed to Durga, are probably older than the Devi Mahatmya (6th century) and can therefore provide information on what the early worship of the goddess looked like.

Another known Stotra the Mahabharata is that of Bhishma , the Krishna calls on his deathbed.

Stotras in Kavyas

Just as stotras appear in other scriptures, they also appear in the Mahakavyas (Hofepen, Kunstepen or 'great poetry'). In the Haravijaya of the poet Ratnakara there is e.g. B. two stotras, to Shiva and to the goddess Candi. In Kiratarjuniya by the poet Bharavi, which is based on an episode of the Mahabharata, Shiva appears to Arjuna in a fight scene , and Arjuna then recites a stotra to the god.

Early examples of stotras embedded in mahakavyas are found at Kalidasa . A stotra in the Kumarasambhava is about how the gods, under Indra's guidance, ask Brahma for help in escaping the demon Taraka. In another Mahakavya Kalidasa, the Raghuvamsa, there is a similar scene in which the addressee of the stotra is now Vishnu .

The poetry of the stotras is simpler than the rest of the poetry of these Kavyas. In later Kavyas, however, such as the Haravijaya, the poetic quality of the stotras resembles the rest of the text.

Very high quality poetry is not found in the stotras that are contained in Kavyas, but these are available as individual works, some of which are also called stotrakavyas. The number of stotras that can be considered high quality poetry is therefore limited.

Important works by these stotrakavyas were created in the 7th century. At the court of King Harsha, Bana composed the Candishataka , a work addressed to the goddess Candi, who appears in many forms such as Durga , Devi , Kali and Parvati . The left foot of the goddess, with which she kicks the buffalo demon Mahisasur (Mahisha), a symbol of victory, is sung about. The Candishataka represents u. a. therefore an important work of the early Stotra literature, as the goddess is consistently viewed and praised as benevolent in order to obtain blessings.

The Suryashataka of Mayura is addressed to the sun god Surya . Mayura was probably a contemporary of Bana, and much more famous than that. The Suryashataka is similar to the Candishataka : at first the deity appears to be exclusively benevolent and beneficial, in addition, both works show references to the Vedas, the Puranas and the epics and use a variety of poetic figures. The legend of the Suryashataka says that the poet Mayura was cured of leprosy by this hymn , and so it is tradition to recite stotras to Surya for the purpose of healing and the forgiveness of sins. This intention is mentioned in the Suryashataka itself, in the sixth stanza it is mentioned that Surya frees from sins and heals.

Aside from hymns to the sun, there are other stotras that are said to have healing powers. The Narayaniya of the Brahmin Narayana Bhatta, which was written towards the end of the 16th century, summarizes the Bhagavatapurana in about a thousand verses and at the end of each session a prayer is recited to end suffering. The Narayaniya is Bhattas native Kerala very common, and according to legend Narayana Bhatta was himself cured of a disease by reciting this Stotra.

Stotras, which contain high-quality poetry in addition to religious intentions, are only available in limited numbers, but they had a great influence on the general assessment and interpretation of stotras, also because they are very widespread and the commentary literature on them Stotras is very extensive. In addition, they are also regarded as exemplary for poetically valuable hymns.

Examples of such high literary stotras would be the Mukundamala of Kulashekara, which is addressed to Mukunda (Vishnu) or the Mahimnastava , which is ascribed to a Gandharva . The Mahimnastava is also called Shivanahimnastava or Shivanahimnastotra and is mentioned as exemplary in many Sanskrit scriptures. For this reason it is also a model for other stotras such as B. the Vishnunahimnastava .

Stotras in the Puranas and Tantras

The Puranas and Tantras also contain a larger number of stotras, although some stotras that are assigned to the Puranas and Tantras are mostly not included in their editions. The stotras of the Puranas and Tantra are also published as individual texts.

In the Puranas and Tantras there are many Namastotras as well as Stotras that serve for protection (Kavaca, Raksha). Some stotras are embedded in the narrative in these works, while others are viewed as part of the worship practices. The stotras of the Puranas and Tantras, in contrast to stotras of other origins, are of inferior quality in terms of poetry .

In the Devi Mahatmya of Markandeyapurana there are particularly popular stotras to the goddess ( Durga ). In terms of content, two of these stotras tell how the gods praise Durga after she killed the demon Mahisha and the demon Shumbha. Durga responds to these praises with a promise that those who sing this hymn will be freed from all misfortune.

Namastotras

In Namastotra, the divine name and the divine attributes ( epithet ) are invoked for protection and for liberation or redemption . These names have always played a large part in Hinduism and Hinduism is the only religion in which such hymns have developed.

One of the first Namastotras, which is considered a prototype , comes from Yajurveda . This stotra is called Shatarudriya , Shrirudram or Rudram and is aimed at Rudra - Shiva . In this stotra a hundred names and attributes of Rudra are enumerated. It is mainly recited in Shiva temples in southern India and accompanies the deity's ritual bath.

Nama stotras always enumerate an auspicious number of names, 8, 12, 100, 1000. The well-known Vishnusahasranamastotra from the Mahabharata, for example, enumerates a thousand names and attributes of Vishnu. Also for Shiva, Ganesha and goddesses there are stotras with a thousand names, which are called Sahasranamas and are widespread. Shankara is ascribed a commentary on Vishnusahasranama , which is very popular in India.

Like other Sahasranamas, the Lalitasahasranama , which is taken from the Brahmandapurana , is very widespread in India. It calls on the goddess Lalita or Tripura Sundari, who u. a. worshiped by the Shrividya school. This Namastotra is related to the mantra , since the Shrividya mantra is considered a short version, while the Stotra is considered the long version of this mantra.

Stotras to invoke protection

Stotras, which are used to invoke protection, are very common, for example in the Puranas and Tantras . Despite their widespread use, they have not been scientifically studied. Such stotras have various titles that indicate protection, such as Kavaca (armor) and Raksha (protection). Sotras, which serve for protection, are closely interwoven in tantra with practices such as mantra , yantra and nyasa , the occupation of the physical body with mantras. Also amulets are sometimes associated with these Stotras.

A popular stotra that exemplifies protective stotras is the Ramarakshastotra . It is one of the most popular stotras in Maharashtra . The Ramarakshastotra is available in several versions, but what they have in common is that Rama is invoked to protect the limbs and body parts of the one reciting the Stotra. For this purpose, all parts of the body that are to be protected are named one after the other in the verses. The names and attributes of Rama invoked for protection correspond to the story of Rama in the Ramayana .

Vedantastotras

Vedantastotras refer to the philosophy and theology of Vedanta and consist of speculative and reflective verses. Vedantastotras are ascribed to famous teachers such as Shankara , who is believed to be the author of around 100 hymns, although many of these hymns are believed to have been written by his successors ( Shankarchayas ), and many hymns are only ascribed to him on the basis of prestige and authority. In terms of content, the hymns assigned to Shankara refer to various Hindu currents: basic philosophy, devotionalism, and Shivaitic or Shaktist tantra . The devotionalism and anthropomorphism of some hymns, which seem to contradict Vedanta philosophy, are attributed to the fact that Shankara proceeded from a higher and a lower truth. These hymns are interpreted in such a way that devotional worship ( bhakti ) and philosophical non- dualism are not incompatible.

According to tradition, some tantric hymns are actually attributed to Shankara: the Saundaryalahari is a stotra that is assigned to the tantric Shri Vidya school. It praises the goddess in the sense of Shaktism and is one of the most common stotras in all of India.

Scientifically, it is possible that only the Dakshinamurtistotra was written by Shankara himself. In this stotra Shiva appears in the form of a guru , and here too there are some tantric echoes. Other stotras that are said to have been written by Shankara correspond more to the philosophy of Vedanta, for example Mohamudgara deals with the knowledge that is necessary to be liberated and also with the basic teachings of Advaita Vedanta. Instead of being addressed to a deity, it is addressed to an audience to whom this knowledge is to be brought closer.

Theology in the stotras

Although most of the stotras cannot be attributed to any author, many famous Hindus wrote stotras among their other works, among them Ramanuja , Utpaladeva, Abhinavagupta and Rupa Gosvamin.

The Kashmiri Shaivism has produced many Stotras that of Shivaite written theologians. The Shivastotravali goes back to the philosopher and theologian Utpaladeva, who wrote a collection of devotional hymns. These express the non-dualistic theology of Kashmiri Shaivism and therefore sometimes establish a personal reference to Shiva as an expression of devotion. The Shivaite philosopher and theologian Abhinavagupta also wrote stotras, which refer to the complex and non-dualistic philosophy of early Tantrism . In the stotra poems of the Shivaiten Appayya Dikshita, public functions of the stotras should be present, since Dikshita meant that the stotras could have an educational effect on the listeners and address a variety of topics.

Also Vaishnavite theologians are said to have written Stotras, for example, Yamuna and Ramanuja . Ramanuja's disciples also wrote stotras relating to three currents in Indian literature, the Vedas, the Tamil Veda and the Pancaratra Agamas . The stotras written by Ramanuja's disciples are the earliest writings in the literature of the Shrivaishnavas on a theology that is unique, united and all-encompassing in relation to Vishnuism. These hymns are still ritually recited in Vishnu temples to this day and all refer to certain forms of Vishnu that are iconic .

Another stotra poet belonging to the Shrivaishnavas was Vedanta Deshika. In his stotras he combines different elements such as Sanskrit and Tamil , emotions and reflections. His stotras also apply to iconic forms of Vishnu and address the believer's relation to these forms of Vishnu, who appears as personal and intimate.

The students of the Vishnuit Caitanya also wrote Stotras, e.g. B. Rupa Gosvamin and Raghunatha Dasa. These stotras express the tradition of the Gaudiya Vaishnavas , in which the believer assumes a role in the divine play of Krishna and Radhas .

Stotras for worship

Although stotras generally express veneration and are used ritually, some stotras were specially created to accompany the worship liturgically . So there are Suprabhatastotras , which awaken temple deities as a morning hymn, or there is a hymn Rupa Gosvamins, which the Gaudiya Vaishnavas use to divide the daily routine in the temple, since in these hymns Krishna's game is divided into 8 sections, after which the daily routine is then divided of the God embodied in the statue is shaped by priests.

In addition, there are stotras that are only used for visualization and spiritual worship, and some of them are meditation instructions.

Relationship to vernacular poetry

Religious poetry in vernacular languages ​​such as Tamil and Kashmiri shows some kinship with the stotras, especially since poets have viewed Sanskrit stotras as inspiration. Folk-language poetry is used, as is the Sanskrit stotras, praise, vocatives and epithets , and as in the stotras e.g. B. Iconographies or the powers of the deities are described. Patikams , Tamil hymns, are also used ritually like early stotras and are similar to them in terms of subject matter and form, which is why Tamil hymns are sometimes also called " Dravidian stotras". Like stotras, they are also sung or recited.

A Kashmiri poet whose work was influenced by Shivaite Sasnkrit poetry is Lal Dev (also Lalla or Lalleshvari).

Conversely, Tamil literature, for example, also influenced the Sanskrit stotras, as these two languages ​​were used together for centuries. The Bhagavatapurana is an example of Sanskrit literature that has been heavily influenced by Tamil hymns.

In Sanskrit literature, stotras are most closely related to vernacular devotional poetry.

Buddhist and Jain stotras

Well-known stotras are also found in Buddhism and Jainism . An early example is a stotra from the 2nd to 3rd centuries by the poet Matrceta who wrote hymns to the Buddha . These hymns reached Central Asia via the Silk Road , where large numbers of text fragments have been preserved, as well as translations into Chinese. Matrceta's hymns were recited in monasteries, their purpose being to achieve the virtues of the Buddha and health and longevity.

Stotras were recited very early in Jainism. The recitation of the "Hymn to the 24 Jinas" ( Caturvimshatistava ) is one of the six daily duties in Jainism.

The stotras of Buddhism and Jainism are very similar to the Hindu stotras, but they do not refer to deities, but are addressed to spiritual teachers. Similar hymns to gurus and acharyas , which are very popular, can also be found in Hinduism.

literature

  • Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (eds.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II: Sacred Texts and Languages, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2010
  • Denise Cush, Catherine Robinson, Michael York (Eds.): Encyclopedia of Hinduism. London (et al.), Routledge 2008

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Cush, Robinson, York: Encyclopedia of Hinduism . London 2008, p. 712 f.
  2. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2010, pp. 193-195
  3. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (inter alia), Brill 2010, p. 196
  4. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2010, pp. 197-198
  5. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2010, pp. 198-200
  6. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2010, pp. 200-201
  7. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2010, pp. 201-202
  8. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (inter alia), Brill 2010, p. 202
  9. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2010, pp. 202-204
  10. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2010, pp. 204-205
  11. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (inter alia), Brill 2010, p. 205
  12. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (inter alia), Brill 2010, p. 197
  13. ↑ Knut A. Jacobsen, Johannes Bronkhorst (Ed.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism; Vol. II. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2010, pp. 196-197