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{{family name hatnote|[[Yuan (surname)|Yuan]]|lang=Chinese}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2011}}
{{short description|Patriot and military commander of the Ming dynasty}}
{{Chinese name|[[Yuan (surname)|Yuan]]}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2011}}
[[Image:Yuan Chonghuan.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Yuan Chonghuan]]
{{Infobox person
'''Yuan Chonghuan''' ({{zh|t={{linktext|袁|崇|煥}}|s=袁崇焕|p=Yuán Chónghuàn|j=Yun4 Sung4 Wun6}}; [[style name]]: Yuánsù {{linktext|元|素}} and Zìrú {{linktext|自|如}}; 6 June 1584 – 22 September 1630) was a famed patriot and military commander of the [[Ming Dynasty]] who battled the [[Manchu]]s in [[Liaoning]]. He was of [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] origin.<ref name="asiatimes10-08-04">{{cite news|title=Cantonese cultural warriors fight back|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LH04Ad01.html|publisher=Asia Times|date=2010-08-04|accessdate=2010-08-08}}</ref> Yuan Chonghuan was known to have excelled in artillery warfare and successfully incorporated [[Western world|Western]] tactics with those of the East. Yuan's military career reached its height when he defeated [[Nurhaci]] and the Manchu army in the first [[Battle of Ningyuan]]. Later, Yuan also managed to defeat Nurhaci's son and successor, [[Huang Taiji]], and his 200,000 mostly Mongol soldiers. However, Yuan was eventually tortured and executed by the [[Chongzhen Emperor]] under false charges which Huang Taiji is believed to have deliberately planted against him.
| name = Yuan Chong huan
| native_name = {{nobold|袁崇煥}}
| image = Yuan Chonghuan.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| alt =
| caption = Portrait of Yuan Chonghuan
| birth_date = {{birth date|1584|6|6|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Dongguan]], [[Guangdong]], [[Ming dynasty|Ming China]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1630|9|22|1584|6|6|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Xisi]], [[Xicheng District]], [[Beijing]], Ming China
| other_names = {{unbulleted list|Yuansu (元素)|Ziru (自如)}}
| occupation = Politician, general, writer
}}

'''Yuan Chonghuan''' ({{zh|c=袁崇煥|j=jyun4 sung4 wun6|p=Yuán Chónghuàn|first=j}}; 6 June 1584 – 22 September 1630), [[courtesy name]] '''Yuansu''', [[art name]] '''Ziru''', was a Chinese politician, military general and writer who served under the [[Ming dynasty]]. Widely regarded as a patriotic [[culture hero]] in Chinese culture, he is best known for defending [[Liaoning]] from invasions launched by the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]-led [[Later Jin (1616-1636)|Later Jin dynasty]]. As a general, Yuan Chonghuan excelled as a cannoneer and sought to incorporate European cannon designs into the Ming arsenal.

Yuan's military career reached its height when he defeated the Later Jin ruler, [[Nurhaci]], and his army in the first [[Battle of Ningyuan]], that resulted in Nurhaci's death. Later on, Yuan also defeated Nurhaci's son and successor, [[Hong Taiji]], and his 200,000-strong army composed of mostly ethnic [[Mongols|Mongol]] soldiers at the second Battle of Ningyuan. Yuan met his end when he was arrested and executed by ''[[lingchi]]'' ("slow slicing") on the order of the [[Chongzhen Emperor]] under false charges of treason, which were believed to have been planted against him by the Later Jin.


==Early life==
==Early life==
Yuan Chonghuan was born in [[Dongguan]], [[Guangdong]]. During his adolescence, Yuan spent time traveling from town to town, and befriended many [[Jesuits]] and foreigners along the way. Although he took the [[imperial examinations]] repeatedly with little success, he saw and experienced much on his journeys to the capital. It is said that he befriended several westerners during this time and spent much time modifying European cannons.
Yuan was born in [[Dongguan]], [[Guangdong]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LH04Ad01.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806074705/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LH04Ad01.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-08-06|title=Cantonese cultural warriors fight back|website=Asia Times Online|access-date=2016-05-18}}</ref> Another source suggest his ancestors came from [[Guangxi]].<ref>《明季北略》：袁崇煥號自如，廣西梧州府藤縣人，萬曆己未進士。</ref> During his adolescence, he spent time traveling from town to town. Although he took the [[imperial examination]] repeatedly with little success, he gained a lot of practical experience during his travels to the capital. It is said that he befriended several [[Jesuits]] during this time and spent much time working on modifying European cannons.


==Early military career==
==Early military career==
He passed the imperial examinations in 1619 and was appointed to the minor post of magistrate in a remote place. In 1619, the imperial Ming army was defeated by the Manchus in the [[Battle of Sarhu]]. The Chinese armies suffered successive defeats and in 1622 they were forced to retreat to [[Shanhaiguan District|Shanhaiguan]], abandoning all of Liaoning to the Manchus. After a visit to the front, Yuan was appointed second-class secretary on the Board of War, then promoted almost immediately to secretary and supplied with funds for enlisting troops. (Yuan's rapid promotion was quite notable as he did not have any formal military training at all, save for studying the Confucian classics in order to pass the imperial examinations.)
Yuan passed the imperial examination in 1619 and was appointed as the magistrate of [[Shaowu]] county, [[Fujian]]. In 1619, the Ming imperial army was defeated by the Jurchens in the [[Battle of Sarhu]]. Ming forces suffered successive defeats and in 1622 they were forced to retreat to [[Shanhai Pass]], abandoning all of Liaoning to the Jurchens. After a visit to the front, Yuan was appointed as a second-class secretary in the [[Three Departments and Six Ministries|Ministry of War]], then promoted almost immediately to full secretary and supplied with funds for enlisting troops. Yuan's rapid promotion was quite notable at the time as he did not have any formal military training at all, save for studying the [[Confucian classics]] in order to pass the imperial examination.


Yuan Chonghuan worked harmoniously with the commander-in-chief [[Sun Chengzong]] ({{lang|zh-Hant|孫承宗}}) and pushed the frontiers steadily northward, fortifying [[Xingcheng|Ningyuan]] ({{lang|zh-Hant|寧遠}}) in 1623. The elderly Sun was an able commander but refused to bribe the [[Tianqi Emperor|Emperor]]'s eunuch. Consequently,Sun was recalled in 1625 and replaced by [[Gao Di]] ({{lang|zh-Hant|高第}}), who ordered a general retreat to Shanhaiguan. However, Yuan flatly refused to leave Ningyuan.
Yuan cooperated with the commander-in-chief [[Sun Chengzong]] in pushing the frontiers steadily northward, fortifying [[Xingcheng|Ningyuan]] in 1623. The elderly Sun was an able commander but refused to bribe [[Wei Zhongxian]], an influential court eunuch under the [[Tianqi Emperor]]. Consequently, Sun was recalled in 1625 and replaced by Gao Di ({{lang|zh-Hant|高第}}), who ordered a general retreat to Shanhai Pass. However, Yuan flatly refused to leave Ningyuan.


Early in the next year, [[Nurhaci]] led the Manchus back across the [[Liao River]]. Yuan Chonghuan and his deputies successfully held Ningyuan with the newly-mounted and modified "red-barbarian cannon" ({{lang|zh-Hant|紅衣大炮, 紅夷大炮}}), and only 9,000 soldiers (mostly militia) against Nurhaci's 130,000 (some estimates say 200,000). The [[Battle of Ningyuan|victory at Ningyuan]] prevented China from being conquered and boosted the hopes of Ming and its allies that the Manchus might be defeated.
Early in the next year, [[Nurhaci]] led the Jurchens back across the [[Liao River]]. Yuan and his deputies successfully held Ningyuan with the newly mounted and modified "[[hongyipao]]" and only 9,000 militiamen against Nurhaci's 130,000-strong army. The [[Battle of Ningyuan|victory at Ningyuan]] prevented immediate advances by the Jurchens.


It is noted that Yuan was said to have studied every aspect of the cannon for it to fire accurately at the position he wanted, and this is given as the reason why the Manchu ruler Nurhaci, although well-protected by his elite guards in a safe position, was wounded by cannon fire. It is said that after the battle, Yuan sent letters to ask the well-being of Nurhaci, as traditionally done by Chinese generals, but Nurhaci returned an insult by calling him a faker.
Yuan was said to have studied every aspect of the cannon for it to fire accurately at the position he wanted, and this is given as the reason why Nurhaci, although well-protected by his elite guards in a safe position, was wounded by cannon fire. After the battle, Yuan sent letters to ask the well-being of Nurhaci, as traditionally done by Chinese generals, but Nurhaci returned an insult by calling him duplicitous.


As a result of this victory, the Imperial Court at [[Beijing]] appointed Yuan as the Governor of Liaodong on 27 February 1626, with full authority to handle all forces outside the passes.
As a result of this victory, the Ming imperial court in [[Beijing]] appointed Yuan as the Governor of Liaodong on 27 February 1626, with full authority to handle all forces outside the passes.


During this time, he executed [[Mao Wenlong]] ({{lang|zh-Hant|毛文龍}}), a Ming commander regarded as ruthless but talented. Various texts have different opinions of his actions. Many stated this was a mistake since Mao could still be used against the Manchus. However, Yuan took into account how Mao ran his battles: Mao's tactics usually involved using civilian settlements as a shield for his troops, and during the occupation the civilians suffered tremendously. Mao also used Korea &mdash; Ming's ally &mdash; as a base to launch expeditions against Manchuria. When the Manchus entered Korea, Mao ordered a general retreat of Ming forces. This angered many merchants in the Beijing area who traded in the [[Korean Peninsula]]. In addition, Mao was known to bribe many corrupt eunuchs and officials. Consequently, by executing Mao, Yuan made enemies with some of the most influential and corrupt people in China.
During this time, Yuan executed [[Mao Wenlong]], a Ming general regarded as ruthless but talented. Various texts have different opinions of his actions. Many stated this was a mistake since Mao could still be used against the Jurchens. However, Yuan took into account how Mao conducted his battles: Mao's tactics usually involved using civilian settlements as a shield for his troops, and during the occupation the civilians suffered tremendously. Mao also used the [[Joseon]] kingdom, Ming's ally, as a base to launch expeditions against the Jurchens. When the Jurchens entered Joseon, Mao ordered a general retreat of Ming forces. This angered many merchants in the Beijing area who traded in the [[Korean Peninsula]]. In addition, Mao was known to have bribed many corrupt eunuchs and officials. Consequently, by executing Mao, Yuan made enemies with some of the most influential people in China.


Taking advantage of Nurhaci's death later in the year, Yuan reoccupied [[Jinzhou]]. The Manchus reappeared in June and withdrew after a series of indecisive battles. (Note: This is known as the Battle of Ningyuan-Jinzhou or the Second Battle of Ningyuan.) Yuan was criticised by the partisans of the eunuch official [[Wei Zhongxian|Wèi Zhōngxián]], who stated that he took too long to fight off the "barbarian" Manchus. Shortly thereafter Yuan was forced into retirement.
Taking advantage of Nurhaci's death later in the year, Yuan reoccupied [[Jinzhou]]. The Jurchens reappeared in June and withdrew after [[Battle of Ning-Jin|a series of indecisive battles]]. Yuan was criticised by the partisans of Wei Zhongxian, who stated that he took too long to fight off the Jurchens. Shortly thereafter Yuan was forced into retirement.


==Later military career and death==
==Later military career and death==
In 1628, under the new government, Yuan Chonghuan was reinstated as field marshal of all the forces of the Northeast. He embarked on an ambitious five-year plan for the complete recovery of Liaodong. The [[Chongzhen Emperor]] had taken the reign in 1627 at the age of 16, and in 1629 (at the age of 18) he appointed Yuan Chonghuan. In 1629 Yuan was granted the title of "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent". The Chongzhen Emperor gave him his Imperial Sword and stated that he would fully support Yuan's decisions.


[[File:Yuan chonghuan-2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Yuan Chonghuan's tomb in the [[Huashi, Beijing|Huashi]] neighborhood, near [[Beijing city fortifications#Guangqumen|Guangqumen]], in [[Chongwen District]], [[Beijing]].]]
This time Yuan had to face again a larger Manchu force of over 200,000 troops under Huang Taiji. The Manchus had incorporated more men in their army, including the newly surrendered Mongols, Ming rebels, conquered Korea, and various small tribes of the North. However, the Manchus were reluctant to attack Jinzhou or Ningyuan and never did so again.


In 1628, under the reign of the [[Chongzhen Emperor]], Yuan was reinstated as the field marshal of all the Ming forces in the northeast. He embarked on an ambitious five-year plan for the complete recovery of [[Liaodong]]. The Chongzhen Emperor had begun his reign in 1627 at the age of 16, and in 1629 (at the age of 18) he appointed Yuan. In 1629, Yuan was granted the title of "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent". The emperor gave Yuan his Imperial Sword and stated that he would fully support Yuan's decisions.
The Manchus changed their strategy. Bypassing Jinzhou, Ningyuan and Shanhai Pass, they broke through the Great Wall west of Shanhai Pass and reached north of Beijing in the winter of 1629. Yuan rushed back with an elite army from Ningyuan to defend the capital. He reached Beijing just days before the Manchus. Outside the city wall of Beijing, he defeated the Manchurian "[[Eight Banners]]" (八旗) which numbered around 100,000 men, but failed to destroy the Manchu army. The Manchus' surprise attack on Beijing was foiled. Despite the fact that Yuan prevented the Manchus from even reaching the city wall, Yuan was heavily criticized when he arrived in Beijing, and some eunuchs even accused Yuan of collaborating with the enemy. In fact, they were actually tricked by Huang Taiji into thinking that Yuan had betrayed them.


This time Yuan had to face again a larger Jurchen force of over 200,000 troops under Nurhaci's successor, [[Hong Taiji]]. The Jurchens had incorporated more men into their army, including the newly surrendered Mongols and Ming rebels. They conquered various small tribes in northern China, and defeated Joseon in order to secure it as a tributary. However, the Jurchens never attacked [[Jinzhou]] or [[Xingcheng|Ningyuan]] again. Instead, they bypassed Jinzhou, Ningyuan and [[Shanhai Pass]] altogether. They broke through the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] west of Shanhai Pass and reached the north of [[Beijing]] in the winter of 1629. Yuan rushed back with a selected veteran force from Ningyuan to defend the capital. He reached Beijing just days before the Jurchens. Outside the city wall of Beijing, he defeated the Jurchen [[Eight Banners]] which numbered around 100,000 men, but failed to destroy the Jurchen army. The Jurchens' surprise attack on Beijing was foiled. Despite the fact that Yuan prevented the Jurchens from even reaching the city wall, Yuan was heavily criticized when he arrived in Beijing, and some eunuchs even accused Yuan of collaborating with the enemy.
The Chongzhen Emperor ordered Yuan's arrest during an audience with the Emperor on 13 January 1630. Despite little evidence, he was accused of collusion with the enemy and condemned to death by "[[slow slicing]]" at Ganshiqiao ({{lang|zh-Hant|甘石橋}}) in [[Beijing]]. When Yuan was asked for last words before his execution, he produced the poem: "A life's work always ends up in vain; half of my career seems to be in dreams. I do not worry about lacking brave warriors after my death, for my loyal spirit will continue to guard [[Liaodong]]." ({{lang|zh-Hant|一生事業總成空，半世功名在夢中。死後不愁無將勇，忠魂依舊保遼東！}})


The Chongzhen Emperor ordered Yuan's arrest during an audience on 13 January 1630. Despite little evidence, Yuan was accused of collusion with the enemy and sentenced to death by ''[[lingchi]]'' ("slow slicing") at Ganshiqiao ({{lang|zh-Hant|甘石橋}}) in Beijing. When Yuan was asked for last words before his execution, he produced the following poem: "A life's work always ends up in vain; half of my career seems to be in dreams. I do not worry about lacking brave warriors after my death, for my loyal spirit will continue to guard Liaodong." ({{lang|zh-Hant|一生事業總成空，半世功名在夢中。死後不愁無將勇，忠魂依舊守遼東！}})
Yuan was mourned throughout most of the country outside Beijing and even in [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon Korea]]. After his death, many regarded the Ming and their allies as extremely vulnerable to Manchu invasion.<ref>[http://www.bjmem.com/bjm/bjwh/rwdl/200711/P020071117533094217342.pdf 程本直墓記修廣東新義園碑記]</ref>


Imperial records showed he took half a day to die.<ref name="vol5">計六奇. ''明季北略'', vol. 5</ref>
It was said that upon hearing of his apparent "betrayal", many Beijing residents hated him so much that they rushed to buy his body parts so they could eat them. He was left there after the torture, shouting for half a day before stopping.<ref>計六奇. ''明季北略'', vol.5</ref> His head, the only recognizable part after the torture, was taken outside the Inner City Wall by a city guard, whose surname is She, and buried near Guanqu Men. The guard's family have guarded it for generations since.<ref>[http://www.southcn.com/weekend/top/200205230055.htm 372年守墓史曲終人散]</ref> His tomb was recently renovated to become the Yuan Chonghuan Memorial.


Yuan was mourned throughout most of the country outside Beijing and even in the kingdom of [[Joseon]]. After his death, many took note of the Ming and their allies' weak position as favorable conditions for another Jurchen invasion.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bjmem.com/bjm/bjwh/rwdl/200711/P020071117533094217342.pdf |title=程本直墓記修廣東新義園碑記 |access-date=2010-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910181517/http://www.bjmem.com/bjm/bjwh/rwdl/200711/P020071117533094217342.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Huang Taiji publicly stated that he would never be able to beat Yuan in a fair game, thus having the Chongzhen Emperor kill him was the only method to get rid of him. Just as the message of Yuan's death reach Huang Taiji's ears, he changed his dynasty's name from Jin to [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] and proclaimed himself Emperor Qing Taizong. Historical records state that Huang Taiji feared Yuan's last words that his soul would always guard Liaodong Peninsula. Some say to overcome Yuan Chonghuan, whose name means "Undying Flames" (which contains the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|element]] of Fire), he had his dynasty name changed to Qing, meaning "to cleanse", which contains the Chinese element of "Water".


It was said that upon hearing of his apparent "betrayal", many Beijing residents hated Yuan so much that they rushed to buy his body parts so they could eat them as soon as they were sliced off his body. He was left there after the torture, shouting for half a day before stopping.<ref name="vol5"/> His head, the only recognisable part after the execution, was taken outside the Inner City Wall by a city guard, whose surname was [[She (surname)|She]] ({{lang|zh|佘}}), and buried in [[Huashi, Beijing|Huashi]] near [[Beijing city fortifications#Guangqumen|Guangqumen]]. The guard's family have guarded it for generations since.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.southcn.com/weekend/top/200205230055.htm |title=372年守墓史曲終人散 |access-date=2010-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927053309/http://www.southcn.com/weekend/top/200205230055.htm |archive-date=2011-09-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref> His tomb was recently renovated and renamed the Yuan Chonghuan Memorial, located at [[Longtan Park]].
==Popular culture==
Although history states that his entire family was resettled, it is said in [[Jin Yong]]'s ''[[wuxia]]'' novel [[Sword Stained with Royal Blood]] ({{lang|zh-Hant|碧血劍}}) that Yuan was survived by his son, Yuan Chengzhi. As the protagonist of the novel, Yuan learns martial arts on [[Mount Hua]] and vows to avenge his father's death. Jin Yong also put forward a theory by some other historians that it was the [[Chongzhen Emperor]], not Huang Taiji, that had Yuan Chonghuan killed, and that the Chongzhen Emperor knew perfectly well that Yuan was innocent. As in the case of [[Yue Fei]], Jin Yong proposed that the cause of Yuan's death was the Chongzhen Emperor's fear of his popularity with the people and his disrespect of the throne.


==Legacy==
Yuan Chonghuan's name was cleared nearly a century later by the [[Qianlong Emperor]], after conclusive evidence was found in old archives of the Imperial Qing court supporting his innocence. Qianlong tried to express his kindness by searching and rewarding for Yuan's direct descendants, but failed to find any of them.
{{self-contradictory|about=whether Yuan had any direct descendants|date=April 2022}}
[[File:Yuan chonghuan-1.jpg|thumb|"Listening to the rain" (聽雨) by Yuan Chonghuan, kept at his memorial in Beijing.]]


Yuan's name was cleared nearly a century later by the [[Qianlong Emperor]] of the [[Qing dynasty]], after conclusive evidence was found in old archives of the Qing imperial court supporting his innocence. The Qianlong Emperor tried to express his kindness by searching for and rewarding Yuan's direct descendants, but failed to find any.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
Apart from the novel as stated above, there are various other books have been written on him. Various TV dramas or films have been made in his memory.


Yuan Chonghuan's son defected from the Ming to the Qing and in 1642 was placed in the [[Han Chinese Eight Banners|Han Chinese]] [[Plain White Banner]]. Yuan Chonghuan's sixth generation descendant lived during the Taiping rebellion and was the Qing [[Jiangsu]] governor, Fumingga (Fuming'a) ([[w:zh:富明阿 (吉林将军)|富明阿]] [[w:zh:フミンガ|フミンガ]]) (Han Chinese name Yuan Shifu 袁世福, [[courtesy name]] Zhi'an 治安). Despite being a Han Chinese bannerman ([[w:zh:漢軍八旗|漢軍八旗]] [[w:ja:漢軍八旗|漢軍八旗]]) he used a Manchu personal name. From 1866 to 1870 the Qing appointed Fumingga as the [[Jilin]] governor in Manchuria. Fumingga had a son named Shoushan (Shou Shan) ([[w:zh:寿山 (清朝)|寿山]] [[w:ja:寿山 (清)|寿山 (清)]]) (courtesy name Meifeng 眉峰) born in 1860 in [[Aigun]], [[Heilongjiang]] in Manchuria. Shoushan along with his younger brother fought in [[Liaoning|Fengtian]] and was wounded against the Japanese in the [[First Sino-Japanese war]] in 1894. His brother died in the war. Before that Shoushan spent the last 6 years holding hereditary posts in Beijing. After the war he was sent in central China to be appointed to a position in [[Kaifeng]] and after that he was sent back to his [[Aigun]] hometown as military lieutenant-governor or brigade-general (fudutong). He could speak some Russian, had visited [[Blagoveshchensk]] and was an Amur native. The Qing promoted him to [[Heilongjiang]] military governor in January 1900. The Fengtian and Jilin governors along with Shoushan all received orders to fight the Russian empire during the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in July 1900 from Beijing. [[Russian invasion of Manchuria|The war started]] with [[Blagoveshchensk massacre and Sixty-Four Villages East of the River massacre|Blagoveshchensk being]] shelled [[Sixty-Four Villages East of the River|and]] Aigun being destroyed by the Russians. A ceasure was attempted by Shoushan to prevent [[Qiqihar]], the capital of Heilongjiang from being occupied. He received no response so Major General Pavel Rennenkampf received Shoushan's surrender on 28 August since no response to the ceasefire proposal was made. Shoushan then committed suicide by asking subordinate or a son to kill him by shooting after swallowing gold. Because Shoushan was married to a Mongol woman, his body was sent to Inner Mongolia from Qiqihar before the Russians occupied Qiqihar. Shoushan called for Heilongjiang to be further colonized by Han people to prevent Russian encroachment.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gamsa |first=Mark |author-link= |date=2020 |title=Harbin: A Cross-Cultural Biography |url= https://ebin.pub/harbin-a-cross-cultural-biography-1487506287-9781487506285.html |location= |publisher= University of Toronto Press|pages=26, 27, 28 |isbn=978-1487533762|quote=Born in Aigun in 1860, Shou Shan was the son of Fumingga (Chinese: Fuming'a), who was governor of Jiangsu province during the.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://debtelin.nl/onderweg/weerzien-aan-de-grens |title=Weerzien aan de grens — Aola Changxing en Fumingga |last1=Helm |first1=Daniella van der |last2=Sam-Sin |first2= Fresco |date=2021 |website=DEBTELIN |publisher= |access-date= |quote=Weerzien aan de grens {{!}} Aola Changxing en Fumingga. Het zit ons mee met de vreedzame grenzen. / Geheel in die geest trof ik mijn oude vriend.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://leidenuni.academia.edu/FSamSin/CurriculumVitae |title=Curriculum Vitae |first= Fresco |last=Sam-Sin|date=2021 |website=leidenuni.academia.edu|publisher= |access-date= |quote=Aola Changxing & Fumingga "Weerzien aan de grens" in Debtelin. April 2016 {{!}} “The Eating Crab jongenliedentekst” ⼦弟书 (Katuri jetere ) in Trage Vuur.}}</ref> Shoushan's Mongol wife was a daughter of the Mongol chief of the [[Dorbod Mongol Autonomous County|Dorbod Banner]]. One of his family members, Yuan Ruizhang (袁瑞昌) who was a northern route barracks officer (北路营官) died in battle against the Tsarist Russian forces in [[Heihe]].
During the [[2010 controversy over proposed increase of adoption of Standard Mandarin by Guangzhou Television|2010 pro-Cantonese rally]], protesters chanted an obscene chant that had been general Yuan's battle cry against his [[Manchu]] enemies in the [[Battle of Ningyuan]]: {{lang|zh-Hans|掉哪妈! 顶硬上!}} (trad: {{lang|zh-Hant|掉哪媽! 頂硬上!}}) - ''"Fuck his mom! Hit them hard!"''<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LH04Ad01.html Cantonese cultural warriors fight back]</ref>


==Physical appearance==
==Notes==
Ming dynasty scholars described Yuan as a short-tempered person with a tiny body frame, and because of his appearance, the Chongzhen Emperor was highly doubtful about his abilities when he first met Yuan.
{{reflist}}

==In popular culture==
In the ''[[wuxia]]'' novel ''[[Sword Stained with Royal Blood]]'' by [[Jin Yong]], Yuan is survived by a fictional son, [[List of Sword Stained with Royal Blood characters|Yuan Chengzhi]], the protagonist of the novel. Yuan Chengzhi was saved by his father's subordinates after his father was executed and taken to the [[Mount Hua School]], where he learnt martial arts. Several years later, when he had grown up, he left Mount Hua and traveled around in search of adventure and to redress his father's legacy.

Celebrated as a [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] hero,<ref name=":0" /> during a [[Guangzhou Television Cantonese controversy|2010 rally]], protesters in [[Guangzhou]] used Yuan's battle cry against his Jurchen enemies during the [[Battle of Ningyuan]]: "Fuck his mom! Hit the hard!"{{sic}} ({{zh|t=掉哪媽! 頂硬上!|first=t|labels=no}})<ref>{{Cite web |title=The obscene battle-cry of a Ming Dynasty war hero |url=http://www.danwei.org/language/yuan_chonghuan_profanity.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709094214/http://www.danwei.org/language/yuan_chonghuan_profanity.php |archive-date=9 July 2010}}</ref> as a chant, in reference to the removal of the relevant (English-Cantonese bilingual) plaque from a statue of Yuan.

In the 2017 [[TVB]] drama ''[[A General, a Scholar and a Eunuch]]'', Yuan Chonghuan was portrayed by [[Edwin Siu]].


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Yue Fei]]
* [[Zu Dashou]]
*[[Zu Dashou]]
* [[Wu Sangui]]
*[[Wu Sangui]]
* [[Hong Chengchou]]
*[[Hong Chengchou]]
* [[Man Gui]]
*[[Man Gui]]
*[[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]]


===Other admired generals falsely executed for treason===
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. -->
* [[Yu Qian]]
| NAME = Yuan, Chonghuan
* [[Yue Fei]]
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
* [[Gao Jiong]]
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Ming dynasty general
* [[Yuwen Xian]]
| DATE OF BIRTH = 6 June 1584
* [[Gao Changgong]]
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
* [[Hulü Guang]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 22 September 1630
* [[Zhou Yafu]]
| PLACE OF DEATH =
* [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]]
}}
* [[Flavius Stilicho]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Yuan, Chonghuan}}
* [[Flavius Aetius]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite ECCP|title=Yüan Ch'ung-huan}}

{{-}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yuan, Chong huan}}
[[Category:1584 births]]
[[Category:1584 births]]
[[Category:1630 deaths]]
[[Category:1630 deaths]]
[[Category:Ming Dynasty generals]]
[[Category:Ming dynasty generals]]
[[Category:People from Dongguan]]
[[Category:Executed Ming dynasty people]]
[[Category:Executed Chinese people]]
[[Category:People executed by the Ming dynasty]]
[[Category:People executed by the Ming Dynasty]]
[[Category:17th-century executions by China]]
[[Category:17th-century executions]]
[[Category:Politicians from Dongguan]]
[[Category:Cantonese people]]
{{Link GA|zh}}
[[Category:Cantonese folklore]]

[[Category:Ming dynasty government officials]]
[[es:Yuan Chonghuan]]
[[Category:People executed by flaying]]
[[ko:원숭환]]
[[Category:Executed people from Guangdong]]
[[id:Yuan Chonghuan]]
[[Category:Generals from Guangdong]]
[[ja:袁崇煥]]
[[no:Yuan Chonghuan]]
[[oc:Yuan Chonghuan]]
[[vi:Viên Sùng Hoán]]
[[zh:袁崇焕]]

Latest revision as of 00:52, 23 March 2024

In this Chinese name, the family name is Yuan.
Yuan Chong huan
袁崇煥
Portrait of Yuan Chonghuan
Born(1584-06-06)6 June 1584
Dongguan, Guangdong, Ming China
Died22 September 1630(1630-09-22) (aged 46)
Xisi, Xicheng District, Beijing, Ming China
Other names
  • Yuansu (元素)
  • Ziru (自如)
Occupation(s)Politician, general, writer

Yuan Chonghuan (Chinese: 袁崇煥; Jyutping: jyun4 sung4 wun6; pinyin: Yuán Chónghuàn; 6 June 1584 – 22 September 1630), courtesy name Yuansu, art name Ziru, was a Chinese politician, military general and writer who served under the Ming dynasty. Widely regarded as a patriotic culture hero in Chinese culture, he is best known for defending Liaoning from invasions launched by the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty. As a general, Yuan Chonghuan excelled as a cannoneer and sought to incorporate European cannon designs into the Ming arsenal.

Yuan's military career reached its height when he defeated the Later Jin ruler, Nurhaci, and his army in the first Battle of Ningyuan, that resulted in Nurhaci's death. Later on, Yuan also defeated Nurhaci's son and successor, Hong Taiji, and his 200,000-strong army composed of mostly ethnic Mongol soldiers at the second Battle of Ningyuan. Yuan met his end when he was arrested and executed by lingchi ("slow slicing") on the order of the Chongzhen Emperor under false charges of treason, which were believed to have been planted against him by the Later Jin.

Early life[edit]

Yuan was born in Dongguan, Guangdong.[1] Another source suggest his ancestors came from Guangxi.[2] During his adolescence, he spent time traveling from town to town. Although he took the imperial examination repeatedly with little success, he gained a lot of practical experience during his travels to the capital. It is said that he befriended several Jesuits during this time and spent much time working on modifying European cannons.

Early military career[edit]

Yuan passed the imperial examination in 1619 and was appointed as the magistrate of Shaowu county, Fujian. In 1619, the Ming imperial army was defeated by the Jurchens in the Battle of Sarhu. Ming forces suffered successive defeats and in 1622 they were forced to retreat to Shanhai Pass, abandoning all of Liaoning to the Jurchens. After a visit to the front, Yuan was appointed as a second-class secretary in the Ministry of War, then promoted almost immediately to full secretary and supplied with funds for enlisting troops. Yuan's rapid promotion was quite notable at the time as he did not have any formal military training at all, save for studying the Confucian classics in order to pass the imperial examination.

Yuan cooperated with the commander-in-chief Sun Chengzong in pushing the frontiers steadily northward, fortifying Ningyuan in 1623. The elderly Sun was an able commander but refused to bribe Wei Zhongxian, an influential court eunuch under the Tianqi Emperor. Consequently, Sun was recalled in 1625 and replaced by Gao Di (高第), who ordered a general retreat to Shanhai Pass. However, Yuan flatly refused to leave Ningyuan.

Early in the next year, Nurhaci led the Jurchens back across the Liao River. Yuan and his deputies successfully held Ningyuan with the newly mounted and modified "hongyipao" and only 9,000 militiamen against Nurhaci's 130,000-strong army. The victory at Ningyuan prevented immediate advances by the Jurchens.

Yuan was said to have studied every aspect of the cannon for it to fire accurately at the position he wanted, and this is given as the reason why Nurhaci, although well-protected by his elite guards in a safe position, was wounded by cannon fire. After the battle, Yuan sent letters to ask the well-being of Nurhaci, as traditionally done by Chinese generals, but Nurhaci returned an insult by calling him duplicitous.

As a result of this victory, the Ming imperial court in Beijing appointed Yuan as the Governor of Liaodong on 27 February 1626, with full authority to handle all forces outside the passes.

During this time, Yuan executed Mao Wenlong, a Ming general regarded as ruthless but talented. Various texts have different opinions of his actions. Many stated this was a mistake since Mao could still be used against the Jurchens. However, Yuan took into account how Mao conducted his battles: Mao's tactics usually involved using civilian settlements as a shield for his troops, and during the occupation the civilians suffered tremendously. Mao also used the Joseon kingdom, Ming's ally, as a base to launch expeditions against the Jurchens. When the Jurchens entered Joseon, Mao ordered a general retreat of Ming forces. This angered many merchants in the Beijing area who traded in the Korean Peninsula. In addition, Mao was known to have bribed many corrupt eunuchs and officials. Consequently, by executing Mao, Yuan made enemies with some of the most influential people in China.

Taking advantage of Nurhaci's death later in the year, Yuan reoccupied Jinzhou. The Jurchens reappeared in June and withdrew after a series of indecisive battles. Yuan was criticised by the partisans of Wei Zhongxian, who stated that he took too long to fight off the Jurchens. Shortly thereafter Yuan was forced into retirement.

Later military career and death[edit]

Yuan Chonghuan's tomb in the Huashi neighborhood, near Guangqumen, in Chongwen District, Beijing.

In 1628, under the reign of the Chongzhen Emperor, Yuan was reinstated as the field marshal of all the Ming forces in the northeast. He embarked on an ambitious five-year plan for the complete recovery of Liaodong. The Chongzhen Emperor had begun his reign in 1627 at the age of 16, and in 1629 (at the age of 18) he appointed Yuan. In 1629, Yuan was granted the title of "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent". The emperor gave Yuan his Imperial Sword and stated that he would fully support Yuan's decisions.

This time Yuan had to face again a larger Jurchen force of over 200,000 troops under Nurhaci's successor, Hong Taiji. The Jurchens had incorporated more men into their army, including the newly surrendered Mongols and Ming rebels. They conquered various small tribes in northern China, and defeated Joseon in order to secure it as a tributary. However, the Jurchens never attacked Jinzhou or Ningyuan again. Instead, they bypassed Jinzhou, Ningyuan and Shanhai Pass altogether. They broke through the Great Wall west of Shanhai Pass and reached the north of Beijing in the winter of 1629. Yuan rushed back with a selected veteran force from Ningyuan to defend the capital. He reached Beijing just days before the Jurchens. Outside the city wall of Beijing, he defeated the Jurchen Eight Banners which numbered around 100,000 men, but failed to destroy the Jurchen army. The Jurchens' surprise attack on Beijing was foiled. Despite the fact that Yuan prevented the Jurchens from even reaching the city wall, Yuan was heavily criticized when he arrived in Beijing, and some eunuchs even accused Yuan of collaborating with the enemy.

The Chongzhen Emperor ordered Yuan's arrest during an audience on 13 January 1630. Despite little evidence, Yuan was accused of collusion with the enemy and sentenced to death by lingchi ("slow slicing") at Ganshiqiao (甘石橋) in Beijing. When Yuan was asked for last words before his execution, he produced the following poem: "A life's work always ends up in vain; half of my career seems to be in dreams. I do not worry about lacking brave warriors after my death, for my loyal spirit will continue to guard Liaodong." (一生事業總成空，半世功名在夢中。死後不愁無將勇，忠魂依舊守遼東！)

Imperial records showed he took half a day to die.[3]

Yuan was mourned throughout most of the country outside Beijing and even in the kingdom of Joseon. After his death, many took note of the Ming and their allies' weak position as favorable conditions for another Jurchen invasion.[4]

It was said that upon hearing of his apparent "betrayal", many Beijing residents hated Yuan so much that they rushed to buy his body parts so they could eat them as soon as they were sliced off his body. He was left there after the torture, shouting for half a day before stopping.[3] His head, the only recognisable part after the execution, was taken outside the Inner City Wall by a city guard, whose surname was She (佘), and buried in Huashi near Guangqumen. The guard's family have guarded it for generations since.[5] His tomb was recently renovated and renamed the Yuan Chonghuan Memorial, located at Longtan Park.

Legacy[edit]

"Listening to the rain" (聽雨) by Yuan Chonghuan, kept at his memorial in Beijing.

Yuan's name was cleared nearly a century later by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty, after conclusive evidence was found in old archives of the Qing imperial court supporting his innocence. The Qianlong Emperor tried to express his kindness by searching for and rewarding Yuan's direct descendants, but failed to find any.[citation needed]

Yuan Chonghuan's son defected from the Ming to the Qing and in 1642 was placed in the Han Chinese Plain White Banner. Yuan Chonghuan's sixth generation descendant lived during the Taiping rebellion and was the Qing Jiangsu governor, Fumingga (Fuming'a) (富明阿 フミンガ) (Han Chinese name Yuan Shifu 袁世福, courtesy name Zhi'an 治安). Despite being a Han Chinese bannerman (漢軍八旗 漢軍八旗) he used a Manchu personal name. From 1866 to 1870 the Qing appointed Fumingga as the Jilin governor in Manchuria. Fumingga had a son named Shoushan (Shou Shan) (寿山 寿山 (清)) (courtesy name Meifeng 眉峰) born in 1860 in Aigun, Heilongjiang in Manchuria. Shoushan along with his younger brother fought in Fengtian and was wounded against the Japanese in the First Sino-Japanese war in 1894. His brother died in the war. Before that Shoushan spent the last 6 years holding hereditary posts in Beijing. After the war he was sent in central China to be appointed to a position in Kaifeng and after that he was sent back to his Aigun hometown as military lieutenant-governor or brigade-general (fudutong). He could speak some Russian, had visited Blagoveshchensk and was an Amur native. The Qing promoted him to Heilongjiang military governor in January 1900. The Fengtian and Jilin governors along with Shoushan all received orders to fight the Russian empire during the Boxer Rebellion in July 1900 from Beijing. The war started with Blagoveshchensk being shelled and Aigun being destroyed by the Russians. A ceasure was attempted by Shoushan to prevent Qiqihar, the capital of Heilongjiang from being occupied. He received no response so Major General Pavel Rennenkampf received Shoushan's surrender on 28 August since no response to the ceasefire proposal was made. Shoushan then committed suicide by asking subordinate or a son to kill him by shooting after swallowing gold. Because Shoushan was married to a Mongol woman, his body was sent to Inner Mongolia from Qiqihar before the Russians occupied Qiqihar. Shoushan called for Heilongjiang to be further colonized by Han people to prevent Russian encroachment.[6][7][8] Shoushan's Mongol wife was a daughter of the Mongol chief of the Dorbod Banner. One of his family members, Yuan Ruizhang (袁瑞昌) who was a northern route barracks officer (北路营官) died in battle against the Tsarist Russian forces in Heihe.

Physical appearance[edit]

Ming dynasty scholars described Yuan as a short-tempered person with a tiny body frame, and because of his appearance, the Chongzhen Emperor was highly doubtful about his abilities when he first met Yuan.

In popular culture[edit]

In the wuxia novel Sword Stained with Royal Blood by Jin Yong, Yuan is survived by a fictional son, Yuan Chengzhi, the protagonist of the novel. Yuan Chengzhi was saved by his father's subordinates after his father was executed and taken to the Mount Hua School, where he learnt martial arts. Several years later, when he had grown up, he left Mount Hua and traveled around in search of adventure and to redress his father's legacy.

Celebrated as a Cantonese hero,[1] during a 2010 rally, protesters in Guangzhou used Yuan's battle cry against his Jurchen enemies during the Battle of Ningyuan: "Fuck his mom! Hit the hard!" [sic] (掉哪媽! 頂硬上!)[9] as a chant, in reference to the removal of the relevant (English-Cantonese bilingual) plaque from a statue of Yuan.

In the 2017 TVB drama A General, a Scholar and a Eunuch, Yuan Chonghuan was portrayed by Edwin Siu.

See also[edit]

Other admired generals falsely executed for treason[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b "Cantonese cultural warriors fight back". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 2010-08-06. Retrieved 2016-05-18.
  2. ^ 《明季北略》：袁崇煥號自如，廣西梧州府藤縣人，萬曆己未進士。
  3. ^ a b 計六奇. 明季北略, vol. 5
  4. ^ "程本直墓記修廣東新義園碑記" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-10. Retrieved 2010-07-20.
  5. ^ "372年守墓史曲終人散". Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2010-07-20.
  6. ^ Gamsa, Mark (2020). Harbin: A Cross-Cultural Biography. University of Toronto Press. pp. 26, 27, 28. ISBN 978-1487533762. Born in Aigun in 1860, Shou Shan was the son of Fumingga (Chinese: Fuming'a), who was governor of Jiangsu province during the.
  7. ^ Helm, Daniella van der; Sam-Sin, Fresco (2021). "Weerzien aan de grens — Aola Changxing en Fumingga". DEBTELIN. Weerzien aan de grens | Aola Changxing en Fumingga. Het zit ons mee met de vreedzame grenzen. / Geheel in die geest trof ik mijn oude vriend.
  8. ^ Sam-Sin, Fresco (2021). "Curriculum Vitae". leidenuni.academia.edu. Aola Changxing & Fumingga "Weerzien aan de grens" in Debtelin. April 2016 | "The Eating Crab jongenliedentekst" ⼦弟书 (Katuri jetere ) in Trage Vuur.
  9. ^ "The obscene battle-cry of a Ming Dynasty war hero". Archived from the original on 9 July 2010.

Further reading[edit]

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