Cougar: Difference between revisions
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===Hunting and diet=== |
===Hunting and diet=== |
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A successful [[Generalist and specialist species|generalist]] [[predator]], a cougar will eat any animal it can catch, from [[insect]]s to large [[ungulates]]. Like all cats, the cougar is an [[obligate carnivore]], feeding only on meat. The most important prey species for the cougar is deer, particularly in North America. [[Mule deer]], [[white-tailed deer]], [[elk (Cervus canadensis)|elk]], and even the large [[moose]] are taken by the cat. A survey of North America research found 68% of prey items were ungulates, especially deer. Only the Florida panther showed variation, often preferring feral [[Hog (swine)|hogs]] and [[armadillo]]s).<ref name=diet/> Investigation in [[Yellowstone National Park]] showed elk followed by mule deer were the cougar's primary targets; the prey base is shared with the park's [[Grey Wolf|wolves]], with whom the cougar competes for resources.<ref name=Yellowstone>{{cite web | title = Wildlife: Wolves | publisher = [[Yellowstone National Park]] | url = http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/wolves.htm | accessdate = 2007-04-08}}<br />* {{cite web | author = Holly Akenson, James Akenson, Howard Quigley | title = Winter Predation and Interactions of Wolves and Cougars on Panther Creek in Central Idaho| url = http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/wolves.htm}}<br />* {{cite web | author = John K. Oakleaf, Curt Mack, Dennis L. Murray | title = Winter Predation and Interactions of Cougars and Wolves in the Central Idaho Wilderness | url = http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/wolves.htm}}</ref> Another study on winter kills (November–April) in [[Alberta]] showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99% of the cougar diet. Learned, individual prey recognition was observed, as some cougars rarely killed [[bighorn sheep]], while others relied heavily on the species.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Ross | first = R. | coauthors = Jalkotzy, MG., Festa-Bianchet, M. | date = May 1993 | title = Cougar predation on bighorn sheep in southwestern Alberta during winter | journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology | volume = 75 | issue = 5 | pages = 771-775 | url = http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=4321651 | accessdate = 2007-04-08}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Small to mid-size animals such as the [[capybara]] increase in the cougar diet across its southern range as the proportion of deer declines]] |
[[Image:Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Small to mid-size animals such as the [[capybara]] increase in the cougar diet across its southern range as the proportion of deer declines]] |
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In the Central and South American cougar range, the ratio of deer in the diet declines. Small to mid-size mammals are preferred, including large rodents such as the [[capybara]]. Ungulates accounted for only 35% of prey items in one survey, approximately half that of North America. Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items.<ref name=diet/> Other listed prey species of the cougar include [[mice]], [[porcupine]], and [[hares]]. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes |
In the Central and South American cougar range, the ratio of deer in the diet declines. Small to mid-size mammals are preferred, including large rodents such as the [[capybara]]. Ungulates accounted for only 35% of prey items in one survey, approximately half that of North America. Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items.<ref name=diet/> Other listed prey species of the cougar include [[mice]], [[porcupine]], and [[hares]]. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but this is rarely recorded in North America.<ref name=diet/> |
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Though |
Though capable of sprinting, the cougar is typically an [[ambush predator]]. It stalks through brush and trees, across ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite. It has a flexible spine which aids its killing technique. |
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Kills are generally estimated at around one large ungulate every two weeks |
Kills are generally estimated at around one large ungulate every two weeks. The period shrinks for females raising young, and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature at around fifteen months.<ref name=CAP/> The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot, covers it with brush, and returns to feed over a period of days. It is generally reported that the cougar is a non-[[scavenger]] and will rarely consume prey it has not killed; however, deer carcasses left exposed for study purposes were scavenged by cougars in California, suggesting more opportunistic behaviour.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Bauer | first = Jim W. | coauthors = Kenneth A. Logan, Linda L. Sweanor, Walter M. Boyce | date = December 2005 | title = Scavenging behavior in Puma | journal = The Southwestern Naturalist | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 466–471 | url = http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1894%2F0038-4909(2005)050%5B0466%3ASBIP%5D2.0.CO%3B2 | accessdate = 2007-05-09}}</ref> |
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===Reproduction and lifecycle=== |
===Reproduction and lifecycle=== |
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Revision as of 06:25, 29 May 2007
| Cougar | |
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| Species: | P. concolor
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| Binomial name | |
| Puma concolor (Linnaeus, 1771)
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| Cougar range map | |
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Felis concolor | |
The cougar (Puma concolor), also known by many names including the puma and the mountain lion, is a New World mammal of the Felidae family. This large, solitary cat has the greatest range of any mammal in the Western Hemisphere, extending from Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes of South America. An adaptable, generalist species, the cougar is found in every major New World habitat type. It is the second heaviest cat in the New World, after the jaguar, and the fourth heaviest in the world, after the tiger, lion, and jaguar, although it is most closely related to smaller felines.
A capable stalk-and-ambush predator, the cougar pursues a wide variety of prey. Its primary food is deer, particularly in the northern part of its range, but it hunts species as small as insects and rodents, as well as large ungulates.
The cougar is territorial and persists at low population densities, with individual territory sizes dependent on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance. While a large predator, it is not always the dominant species in its range, competing with other animals such as wolves for prey. It is a reclusive cat and usually avoids people; attacks on humans are rare.
Due to persecution as a dangerous pest animal after the European colonization of the Americas, and continuing human development of cougar habitat, populations have dropped in many parts of its historical range. In particular, the cougar has become extinct in almost all of eastern North America as human settlement has increased, although the animal may be recolonizing parts of the former range. With its vast range, the cougar has dozens of names and a variety of references in the mythology and contemporary culture of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.
Naming and etymology
The cougar has over 40 names in English, with puma and mountain lion in widespread use. Other names include include catamount, panther, painter and mountain screamer. In North America, particularly the United States, panther by itself refers to a cougar when the context implies a local species, such as the Florida panther population. In South America, panther refers to both the spotted and black color morphs of the jaguar.
Cougar is borrowed from the Portuguese çuçuarana, via French; the term was originally derived from the Tupi language. A current form in Brazil (a Portuguese-speaking country) is suçuarana. "Puma" comes from the Quechua language of Peru.[2]
Taxonomy
The cougar is the largest of the small cats. While its bulk characteristics are similar to the species of Panthera it is more closely related to small- and mid-sized felines. It was originally placed in Felis, a genus which includes the domestic cat, and was reviewed as such as late as 1983. It is now placed in the Puma genus along with the jaguarundi, a cat just a little more than a tenth its weight. Culver et al. report that the cougar, jaguarundi, and African cheetah share a common ancestor dated to 5–8 mya.[3] Johnson et al., writing in 2006, support the relationship among the three cats.[4] They note that the Puma lineage shares a clade with the Lynx, leopard cat (Prionailurus), and domestic cat (Felis) lineages. A common ancestor of these and the ocelot lineage (Leopardus) is suggested to have migrated to the Americas between 8 and 8.5 mya. The cheetah, after diverging from Puma, migrated backwards. Taxonomic research on felids remains partial and should be treated cautiously; Johnson notes that "a large portion of felid evolutionary history is not represented in the fossil record."[4]
Up until the late 1990s, as many as 32 different subspecies were recorded, although Culver indicates that many of these are too genetically similar to be retained as distinct. The study suggests that the original North American subspecies of Puma concolor became extinct during the Pleistocene extinctions some 10,000 years ago and that North America was then repopulated by South American cougars, leading to the genetic similarity of modern North American cougars.[3] The canonical Mammal Species of the World (3rd edition) recognizes six subspecies following the research.[5]
- Argentine Puma (Puma concolor cabrerae): includes the previous subspecies and synonyms hudsonii and puma (Marcelli, 1922)
- Costa Rican Cougar (Puma concolor costaricensis)
- Eastern South American Cougar (Puma concolor anthonyi): includes the previous subspecies and synonyms acrocodia, borbensis, capricornensis, concolor (Pelzeln, 1883), greeni and nigra
- North American Cougar (Puma concolor couguar): includes the previous subspecies and synonyms arundivaga, aztecus, browni, californica, coryi, floridana, hippolestes, improcera, kaibabensis, mayensis, missoulensis, olympus, oregonensis, schorgeri, stanleyana, vancouverensis and youngi
- Northern South American Cougar (Puma concolor concolor): includes the previous subspecies and synonyms bangsi, incarum, osgoodi, soasoaranna, soderstromii, sucuacuara and wavula
- Southern South American Puma (Puma concolor puma): includes the previous subspecies and synonyms araucanus, concolor (Gay, 1847), patagonica, pearsoni and puma (Trouessart, 1904)
Biology and behaviour
Physical characteristics
The cougar is a slender and agile cat. The length of adult males is around 2.4 m (8 ft) long nose to tail, with overall ranges between 1.5–2.75 m (5–9 ft) nose to tail suggested for the species in general.[6][7] Males have an average weight of about 53–72 kg (115–160 lb). In rare cases, some may reach over 120 kg (260 lb). Female average weight is between 34–48 kg (75–105 lb).[8] Cougars are smallest close to the equator, and increase in size as they approach the poles.[9]
The head of the cat is round and the ears erect. Its powerful forequarters, neck, and jaw serve to grasp and hold large prey. Cougar claws are retractable; it has five digits on its forepaws (one a dewclaw) and four on its hindpaws. The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey.[10]
The higher end of the cougar length range equals that of the jaguar, but the cougar is less muscled and powerful than its felid cousin. The cougar is, however, heavier on average than the leopard. It is not typically counted among the "big cats" despite its bulk, as it cannot roar, lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid appartus of Panthera.
Cougar colouring is plain (Latin: concolor) but can vary greatly between individuals, and even between siblings. The coat is typically tawny, but ranges to silvery-grey or reddish, with lighter patches on the under body including the jaws, chin, and throat. Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails;[8] juveniles are pale, and dark spots remain on their flanks.[7] Despite anecdotes to the contrary, melanism has never been documented in the cougar;[11] "black panther" is used colloquially to refer melanistic individuals of other species, particularly jaguars and leopards.
The cougar has large feet and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family.[8] This physique allows for great leaping and short-sprint ability. An exceptional vertical leap of 5.4 m (18 ft) is reported for the cougar.[12] Horizontal jumping capability is suggested anywhere from 6 to 12 m (20 to 40 ft). The cougar can run as quickly as 55km/h (35 mph),[13] but is best adapted for short, powerful sprints rather than lengthy chases. The cougar is also adept at climbing and can even swim (although it is not strongly associated with water); its climbing ability allows the cougar to evade canine competitors.[14]
Hunting and diet
A successful generalist predator, a cougar will eat any animal it can catch, from insects to large ungulates. Like all cats, the cougar is an obligate carnivore, feeding only on meat. The most important prey species for the cougar is deer, particularly in North America. Mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, and even the large moose are taken by the cat. A survey of North America research found 68% of prey items were ungulates, especially deer. Only the Florida panther showed variation, often preferring feral hogs and armadillos).[9] Investigation in Yellowstone National Park showed elk followed by mule deer were the cougar's primary targets; the prey base is shared with the park's wolves, with whom the cougar competes for resources.[15] Another study on winter kills (November–April) in Alberta showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99% of the cougar diet. Learned, individual prey recognition was observed, as some cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep, while others relied heavily on the species.[16]
In the Central and South American cougar range, the ratio of deer in the diet declines. Small to mid-size mammals are preferred, including large rodents such as the capybara. Ungulates accounted for only 35% of prey items in one survey, approximately half that of North America. Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items.[9] Other listed prey species of the cougar include mice, porcupine, and hares. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but this is rarely recorded in North America.[9]
Though capable of sprinting, the cougar is typically an ambush predator. It stalks through brush and trees, across ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite. It has a flexible spine which aids its killing technique.
Kills are generally estimated at around one large ungulate every two weeks. The period shrinks for females raising young, and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature at around fifteen months.[8] The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot, covers it with brush, and returns to feed over a period of days. It is generally reported that the cougar is a non-scavenger and will rarely consume prey it has not killed; however, deer carcasses left exposed for study purposes were scavenged by cougars in California, suggesting more opportunistic behaviour.[17]
Reproduction and lifecycle
Female cougars reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half and three years of age. They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive life;[18] the period can be as short as one year.[8] Females are in estrus for approximately eight days out of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is approximately 91 days.[8] Females are sometimes reported as monogamous,[13] but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common.[19] Copulation is brief but frequent.
Only female cougars are involved in parenting. Each litters has up to six kittens, typically two or three. Caves and other alcoves which offer protection are used as litter dens. Born blind, kittens are completely dependent upon their mother at first, and begin to be weaned at around three months of age. As they grow, kittens begin to go out on forays with their mother, first visiting kill sites, and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own.[18] Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter.[8]
Sub-adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier. Males tend to leave their mother earlier than females. One study has shown high death rates amongst cougars that travel farthest from the maternal range, often due to conflicts with other cougars.[18] Research in New Mexico has shown that "males dispersed significantly farther than females, were more likely to traverse large expanses of noncougar habitat, and were probably most responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches."[20]
Life expectancy in the wild is reported at between eight to thirteen years, and probably averages eight to ten; a female of at least eighteen years was reported killed by hunters on Vancouver Island.[8] Cougars may live as long as twenty years in captivity. Causes of morbidity in the wild include disability and disease, competition with other cougars, starvation, accidents, and, where allowed, human hunting. Feline immunodeficiency virus, an endemic AIDS-like disease in cats, is well-adapted to the cougar species.[21]
Social structure and home range
Like almost all cats, the cougar is a solitary animal. Only mothers and kittens live in groups, with adults meeting only to mate. It is secretive and crepuscular, being most active around dawn and dusk.
Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly. Canadian Geographic reports large male territories of 150 to 1000 km2 (58–386 mi2) with female ranges half the size.[13] Other research suggests a much smaller lower limit of 25 km2 (10 mi2) but an even greater upper limit of 1300 km2 (500 mi2) for males.[18] In the United States, very large ranges have been reported in Texas and the Black Hills of the northern Great Plains, in excess of 775 km2 (300 mi2).[22] Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflict between cougars. Ranges of females may overlap slightly with eachother. Scrape marks, urine, and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates. Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory.[14]
Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance are determined by terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance.[18] One female adjacent to the San Andreas mountains, for instance, was found with a large range of 215 km2 (83 mi2), necessitated by poor prey abundance.[21] Research has shown cougar abundances from 0.5 animals to as much as seven (in one study in South America) per 100 km2.[8]
Because males disperse further than females and compete more directly for mates and territory, they are most likely to be involved in conflict. Where a sub-adult fails to leave his maternal range, for example, he may be killed by his father.[22] When they encounter one another, males hiss and spit, and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down.[19] Hunting or relocation of cougars may increase aggressive encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young, transient animals into conflict with established individuals.[23]
Ecology
Distribution and habitat
The cougar has the largest range of any wild cat in the world. Spanning 110 degrees of latitude, from northern Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes, it also has the largest range of any land animal in the New World. It is one of only three cat species, along with the bobcat and Canadian lynx, endemic to Canada.[10] Its wide distribution stems from its adaptability to virtually every habitat type: It is found in all forest types as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts. Studies show regions with dense underbrush are preferred, but it can live with little vegetation in open areas.[1] Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons, escarpments, rim rocks, and dense brush.[14]
The cougar was extirpated across its eastern North American range in the two centuries following European colonization and faced grave threats in the remainder. Currently, the cat ranges across most western American states, the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, and the Canadian Yukon Territory. There have been widely-debated reports of possible recolonization of eastern North America.[24] A consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous reports, from the mid-western Great Plains through to Eastern Canada.[25] The only unequivocally known eastern population is the Florida panther, which is critically endangered.
South of the Rio Grande, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) lists the cat in every Central and South American country, with the exception of Costa Rica and Panama.[1] While specific state and provincial statistics are often available in North America, much less is known about the cat in its southern range.[26]
The cougar's total breeding population is estimated at less than 50,000 by the IUCN, with a declining trend.[1] U.S. state-level statistics are often more optimistic, suggesting cougar populations have rebounded. In Oregon, a healthy population of 5,000 was reported in 2006, exceeding a target of 3,000.[27] California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested, between 4,000 and 6,000.[28]
Ecological role
Aside from humans, no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild. The cat is not, however, the apex predator throughout much of its range. In its northern range the cougar interacts with other powerful predators such as the brown bear and wolf. In the south, the cougar must compete with the larger jaguar.
The Yellowstone National Park ecosystem provides a fruitful microcosm to study inter-predator interaction in North America. Of the three large predators, the massive brown bear appears dominant, able to drive both wolves and cougars off their kills. One study found that brown or black bears visited 24% of cougar kills in Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks, usurping 10% of carcasses.[29]
Wolves and cougars compete more directly for prey, especially in winter. While individually more powerful than a wolf, a solitary cougar may be dominated by the pack structure of the canines. Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat. One report describes a large pack of fourteen wolves killing a female cougar and her kittens. Conversely, lone wolves are at a disadvantage, and have been reported killed by cougars.[30] Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behaviour. Preliminary research in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of cougars by wolves.[31] One researcher in Oregon notes: "When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens...A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table."[32] Both species, meanwhile, are capable of killing mid-sized predators such as bobcats and coyotes and tend to suppress their numbers.[15]
In the southern portion of its range, the cougar and jaguar share overlapping territory.[33] The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap, reducing the cougar's size.[9] Of the two felines, the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey.[34]
Predation by cougars has been linked to changes in the species mix of deer in a region. For example, a study in British Columbia observed that the population of mule deer, a favoured cougar prey, was declining while the population of the less frequently preyed-upon white-tailed deer was increasing.[35] The Vancouver Island Marmot, an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar population, has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and wolf predation.[36]
Conservation status
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) currently lists the cougar as a "near threatened" species. It has shifted the cougar's status from "least concern," while leaving open the possiblity that it may be raised to "vulnerable" when greater data on the cat's distribution becomes available.[1] The cougar is regulated under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),[37] rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts. The Eastern cougar, reduced to its Florida sub-population, is recognized as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and protected under the Endangered Species Act.[38] (The Eastern cougar is not a distinct sub-species.) The Florida panther population varies between 30 and 50 animals and is the most intensively and expensively protected feline population in the world.[1]
The cougar is also protected across much of the rest of its range. As of 1996, cougar hunting was prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuala, and Uruguay. (Costa Rica and Panama are not listed as current range countries by the IUCN.) The cat had no reported legal protection in Ecuador, El Salvador, and Guyana.[8] Regulated cougar hunting is still common in the United States and Canada; it is permitted in every state from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of California. The cougar cannot be killed in California except under very specific circumstances, such as when an individual is declared a public safety threat.[28]
Conservation threats to the species include persecution as a pest animal, degradation and fragmentation of its habitat, and depletion of its prey base. As with any large predator, habitat corridors and sufficient range areas are critical to the sustainability of cougar populations. Research simulations have shown that the animal faces a low extinction risk in areas of 2200 km2 or more. As few as one to four new animals entering a population per decade markedly increases persistence, foregrounding the importance of habitat corridors.[39]
Attacks on humans
Due to urbanization, cougar ranges increasingly overlap with human habitation, especially in areas with a large population of deer. Attacks on humans are rare, as cougar prey recognition is a learned behaviour and they do not generally recognize humans as prey.[40] Attacks on people, livestock, and pets may occur when the cat habituates to humans. There have been 108 confirmed attacks on humans with 20 fatalities in North America since 1890, 50 of the incidents having occured since 1991.[41][42] The heavily populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 (after just three from 1890), including three fatalities.[28]
As with many predators, a cougar may attack if cornered, if a fleeing human being stimulates its instinct to chase, or if a person mistakenly "plays dead." Exaggerating the threat to the animal through intense eye contact, loud but calm shouting, and any other action to appear larger and more menacing, may make the animal retreat; fighting back with sticks and rocks may also cause a cougar to disengage.[40][43]
Where the cougar does attack, it usually employs its characteristic neck bite, attempting to position its teeth between the vertebrae and into the spinal cord. Neck, head, and spinal injuries are a common and sometimes fatal result.[40] Children are at greatest risk of attack, and least likely to survive an encounter. Detailed research into attacks prior to 1991 showed 64% of overall victims, and almost all fatalities, were children. The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to be in British Columbia, particularly on Vancouver Island where cougar populations are especially dense.[42]
In mythology and culture
The grace and power of the cougar have been widely admired in the cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The Inca city of Cusco is reported to have been designed in the shape of cougar, and the animal also gave its name to both Inca regions and people. The sky and thunder god of the Inca, Viracocha, has been associated with the animal.[44]
In North America, mythological descriptions of the cougar have appeared in the writings of the Hotcâk language (Ho-Chunk or Winnebago) of Wisconsin and Illinois[45] and the Cheyenne, amongst others. To the Apaches and Walapais of Arizona, the wail of the cougar was harbinger of death.[46]
The cougar continues to be a symbol of strength and stealth. From combat helicoptors, and motor vehicles to athletic shoes, both "cougar" and "puma" are widely used as a brand name. A variety of sports teams have also adopted the names. Many places, such as Cougar Mountain, are also named after their association with cougars.
See also
Notes and references
- ^ a b c d e f Template:IUCN2006 Database entry includes justification for why this species is near threatened
- ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Douglas Harper. 2001. Retrieved 2006-08-06.
* Cougar
* Puma - ^ a b Culver, M. (2000). "Genomic Ancestry of the American Puma" (PDF). Journal of Heredity. 91 (3): 186–197.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b Johnson, W.E., Eizirik, E., Pecon-Slattery, J., Murphy, W.J., Antunes, A., Teeling, E. & O'Brien, S.J. (2006). "The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: A genetic assessment". Science. 311: 73–77.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Cite error: The named reference
MSW3was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "Mountain Lion (Puma concolor)". Texas Parks and Wildlife. Retrieved 2007-03-30.
- ^ a b "Eastern Cougar Fact Sheet". New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Retrieved 2007-03-30.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Nowell, K. and Jackson, P. (1996). Wild Cats. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. (PDF). IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
- ^ a b c d e J. Agustin Iriarte, William L. Franklin, Warren E. Johnson, and Kent H. Redford (1990). "Biogeographic variation of food habits and body size of the America puma". Oecologia. 85 (2): 185. Retrieved 2007-04-04.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b "Cougar". Hinterland Who's Who. Canadian Wildlife Service and Canadian Wildlife Federation. Retrieved 2007-05-22.
- ^ "Black cougar more talk than fact". Tahlequah Daily Press. February 01, 2006. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
[Game Warden]: Never in the history of the United States has there ever been, in captivity or in the wild, a documented black mountain lion
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "Mountain Lion (Puma, Cougar)". San Diego Zoo.org. Zoological Society of San Diego. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
- ^ a b c "Cougars in Canada (Just the Facts)". Canadian Geographic Magazine. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
- ^ a b c "Mountain Lion, Puma concolor". Sierra Club. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
- ^ a b "Wildlife: Wolves". Yellowstone National Park. Retrieved 2007-04-08.
* Holly Akenson, James Akenson, Howard Quigley. "Winter Predation and Interactions of Wolves and Cougars on Panther Creek in Central Idaho".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* John K. Oakleaf, Curt Mack, Dennis L. Murray. "Winter Predation and Interactions of Cougars and Wolves in the Central Idaho Wilderness".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Ross, R. (May 1993). "Cougar predation on bighorn sheep in southwestern Alberta during winter". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 75 (5): 771–775. Retrieved 2007-04-08.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Bauer, Jim W. (December 2005). "Scavenging behavior in Puma". The Southwestern Naturalist. 50 (4): 466–471. Retrieved 2007-05-09.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d e Cougar Discussion Group (January 27, 1999). "Utah Cougar Management Plan (Draft)" (PDF). Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. Retrieved 2007-05-02.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|month=(help) - ^ a b Matthew Hamilton. "Mountain Lions". University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point. Retrieved 2007-05-10.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Sweanor, Linda (2000). "Cougar Dispersal Patterns, Metapopulation Dynamics, and Conservation" (PDF). Conservation Biology. 14 (3): 798–808. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99079.x. Retrieved 2007-05-02.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ a b Biek, Roman (2003). "Epidemiology, Genetic Diversity, and Evolution of Endemic Feline Immunodeficiency Virus in a Population of Wild Cougars". Journal of Virology. 77 (17): 9578–9589. doi:10.1128/JVI.77.17.9578-9589.2003. Retrieved 2007-05-22.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ a b Mahaffy, James (2004). "Behavior of cougar in Iowa and the Midwest". Dordt College. Retrieved 2007-05-11.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "Mountain Lion (Puma concolor) study on Boulder Open Space" (PDF). Letter to the Parks and Open Space Advisory Committee, Boulder, Colorado. Sinapu. March 22, 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-11.
- ^ Marschall, Laurence A. (2005). "Bookshelf". Natural Selections. Natural History Magazine. Retrieved 2007-05-06.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Board of Directors (2004). "The "Big" Picture". The Cougar Network. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
{{cite web}}: External link in|author= - ^ "Cougars" (PDF). National Wildlife Federation. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
- ^ "Cougar Management Plan". Wildlife Division: Wildlife Management Plans. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. 2006. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
- ^ a b c "Mountain Lions in California". California Department of Fish and Game. 2004. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
- ^ Assessment and Update Status Report on the Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos) (2002). COSEWIC. Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada. (PDF) Retrieved on: April 8, 2007.
- ^ Gugliotta, Guy (May 19, 2003). "In Yellowstone, it's Carnivore Competition". Washington Post. Retrieved April 9, 2007.
- ^ "Overview: Gray Wolves". Greater Yellowstone Learning Center. Retrieved 2007-04-09.
- ^ Cockle, Richard (October 29, 2006). "Turf wars in Idaho's wilderness". The Oregonian. Retrieved April 9, 2007.
- ^ Hamdig, Paul. "Sympatric Jaguar and Puma". Ecology Online Sweden. Retrieved August 30.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Rodrigo Nuanaez, Brian Miller, and Fred Lindzey (2000). "Food habits of jaguars and pumas in Jalisco, Mexico". Journal of Zoology. 252 (3): 373. Retrieved 2006-08-08.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Robinson, Hugh S. (2002). "Cougar predation and population growth of sympatric mule deer and white-tailed deer". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 80 (3): 556–568. doi:10.1139/z02-025. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Bryant, Andrew A. (2005). "Cougar predation and population growth of sympatric mule deer and white-tailed deer". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 83 (5): 674–682. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "Appendices I, II and III". Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
- ^ "Eastern Cougar". Endangered and Threatened Species of the Southeastern United States (The Red Book). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1991. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
- ^ Beier, Paul (1993). "Determining Minimum Habitat Areas and Habitat Corridors for Cougars". Conservation Biology. 7 (1): 94–108. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ a b c McKee, Denise (2003). "Cougar Attacks on Humans: A Case Report". Wilderness and Environmental Medicine. 14 (3). Wilderness Medical Society: 169–173. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
- ^ "Confirmed mountain lion attacks in the United States and Canada 1890 - Present". Arizona Game and Fish. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
- ^ a b Beier, Paul (1991). "Cougar attacks on humans in United States and Canada". Wildlife Society Bulletin. Northern Arizon University. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
- ^ "Safety Guide to Cougars". Environmental Stewardship Division. Government of British Columbia, Ministry of Environment. 1991. Retrieved 2007-05-28.
- ^ Tarmo, Kulmar. "On the role of Creation and Origin Myths in the Development of Inca State and Religion". Electronic Journal of Folklore. Estonian Folklore Institute. Retrieved 2007-05-22.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Blowsnake, Jasper. Richard L. Dieterle (ed.) (ed.). "The Four Steps of the Cougar". Electronic Journal of Folklore. The Encyclopedia of Hotcâk (Winnebago) Mythology. Retrieved 2007-05-22.
{{cite web}}:|editor=has generic name (help) - ^ "Living with Wildlife: Cougars" (PDF). USDA Wildlife Services. Retrieved 2007-05-22.
Suggested reading
- Logan, Ken (2001). Desert Puma: Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation of an Enduring Carnivore. Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-866-4.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Kobalenko, Jerry (1997). Forest Cats of North America. Buffalo, New York: Island Press. ISBN 1-55209-174-4.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: checksum (help) - Baron, David (2004). The Beast in the Garden: A Modern Parable of Man and Nature. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0393058077.