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{{Tibetan-Chinese-box|t=སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ་|w=srong btsan sgam po|ipa=soŋtsɛ̃kampo|z=Songzain Gambo|thdl=Songtsen Gampo|e=Songtsan Gampo,<br>Songtsän Gampo|tc=松贊干布|s=松赞干布|p=Sōngzàn Gānbù}}
{{Tibetan-Chinese-box|t=སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ་|w=srong btsan sgam po|ipa=soŋtsɛ̃kampo|z=Songzain Gambo|thdl=Songtsen Gampo|e=Songtsan Gampo,<br>Songtsän Gampo|tc=松贊干布|s=松赞干布|p=Sōngzàn Gānbù}}


''' Songtsän Gampo ''' ([[605]] or [[617]]? - [[649]]). Srong-btsan sGam-po = 'he who is powerful, just and profound')<ref>Norbu, Thubten Jigme and Turnbull, Colin. ''Tibet: Its History Religion and People'', p. 142. (1968). Chatto & Windus. Reprint: (1987) Penguin Books, England.</ref> was the first emperor of a unified [[Tibet]]. In the Chinese records his name is given as Qizonglongzan.<ref>Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. ''Tibet: A Political History'' (1967), p. 25. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.</ref>
'''Songtsen Gampo''', often spelled ''' Songtsän Gampo''' ([[605]] or [[617]]? - [[649]]). Srong-btsan sGam-po = 'he who is powerful, just and profound')<ref>Norbu, Thubten Jigme and Turnbull, Colin. ''Tibet: Its History Religion and People'', p. 142. (1968). Chatto & Windus. Reprint: (1987) Penguin Books, England.</ref> was the first emperor of a unified [[Tibet]]. In the Chinese records his name is given as Qizonglongzan.<ref>Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. ''Tibet: A Political History'' (1967), p. 25. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.</ref>


The dates of his birth and when he took the throne are not certain. In Tibetan accounts it is generally accepted that he was born in 617 (one year before the founding of the [[Tang]] Dynasty, when [[Gaozu]] became emperor of China). As he is thought to have ascended the throne at age thirteen (twelve by Western reckoning), by this reckoning c. 629 CE.<ref>Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. ''Tibet: A Political History'' (1967), p. 25. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.</ref><ref>Beckwith, Christopher I. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia (1987), p. 19 and note 31). Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey. ISBN 0-691-02469-3.</ref>
The dates of his birth and when he took the throne are not certain. In Tibetan accounts it is generally accepted that he was born in 617 (one year before the founding of the [[Tang]] Dynasty, when [[Gaozu]] became emperor of China). As he is thought to have ascended the throne at age thirteen (twelve by Western reckoning), by this reckoning c. 629 CE.<ref>Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. ''Tibet: A Political History'' (1967), p. 25. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.</ref><ref>Beckwith, Christopher I. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia (1987), p. 19 and note 31). Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey. ISBN 0-691-02469-3.</ref>

Revision as of 12:28, 3 January 2008

Songtsän Gampo
Emperor of Tibet
SuccessorMangsong Mangtsen
Names
Srong-btsan sGam-po
FatherNamri Löntsen (Gnam-ri-slon-mtshan)
Songtsen Gampo
Tibetan name
Tibetan སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ་
Transcriptions
Wyliesrong btsan sgam po
THLSongtsen Gampo
Tibetan PinyinSongzain Gambo
Lhasa IPAsoŋtsɛ̃kampo
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese松贊干布
Simplified Chinese松赞干布
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinSōngzàn Gānbù

Songtsen Gampo, often spelled Songtsän Gampo (605 or 617? - 649). Srong-btsan sGam-po = 'he who is powerful, just and profound')[1] was the first emperor of a unified Tibet. In the Chinese records his name is given as Qizonglongzan.[2]

The dates of his birth and when he took the throne are not certain. In Tibetan accounts it is generally accepted that he was born in 617 (one year before the founding of the Tang Dynasty, when Gaozu became emperor of China). As he is thought to have ascended the throne at age thirteen (twelve by Western reckoning), by this reckoning c. 629 CE.[3][4]

There are difficulties with this position, however, and several earlier dates for the birth of Songtsän Gampo have been suggested, including 569, 605 or 593.[5] The question must remain open.

After his father, Namri Löntsen (Wylie: Gnam-ri-slon-mtshan), was poisoned (circa 618?), he ascended the throne while still a minor (i.e. before he was 13 - or 14 by Western reckoning).[6]

Early life and cultural background

It is said that Songtsän Gampo was born at Gyama in Maldro (a region to the northeast of modern Lhasa), the son of the Yarlung king, Namri Löntsen (Wylie: Gnam-ri-slon-mtshan). According to Tibetan tradition Songstän Gampo was enthroned as the thirty-third king of the Yarlung Dynasty, after his father was poisoned circa 618,[7] He is said to have been born in an unspecified Ox year and was thirteen (that is 14 by Western reckoning), when he took the throne. This accords with the tradition that the Yarlung kings took the throne when they were thirteen and supposedly old enough to ride a horse and rule the kingdom.[8] If these traditions are correct, he was probably born in the Ox year 605 CE. The Jiu Tangshu or Book of Tang confirms that he "was still a minor when he succeeded to the throne." [9][10].

Songtsän Gampo is said to have sent his minister Thonmi Sambhota to India to devise a script for the Tibetan language, which led to the creation of the first Tibetan literary works and translations, court records and a constitution. [11]

Songtsän Gampo is also credited with bringing many new cultural and technological advances to Tibet. The Tangshu or Book of Tang states that after the defeat in 648 of an Indian army in support of Chinese envoys, the Chinese Emperor, Gaozong, a devout Buddhist, gave him the title (variously written Binwang "Guest King" or Zongwang "Cloth-tribute King") and 3,000 rolls of multicoloured silk in 649,[12] and granted the Tibetan king's request for:

". . . silkworms' eggs, mortars and presses for making wine, and workmen to manufacture paper and ink."[13]

Traditional accounts say that, during the reign of Songtsän Gampo, examples of handicrafts and astrological systems were imported from China and Minyag; Dharma and the art of writing came from India; material wealth and treasures from Nepalis and the lands of the Mongols, while model laws and administration were imported from the Uighurs to the north.[14]


Introduction of Buddhism

A statue of Songtsän Gampo in a cave at Yerpa


Songtsän Gampo is traditionally credited with being the first to bring Buddhism to the Tibetan people, and he invited outstanding Buddhist teachers such as Shantarakshita and Padmasambhava to Tibet. He is also said to have built many Buddhist temples, including the Jokhang in Lhasa and Changzhug in Nêdong over two different lakes. Songtsän Gampo is crucial to the history of Tibetan Buddhism, and is considered to be the first of the three Dharma Kings (chosgyal) — Songtsän Gampo, Trisong Detsen, and Ralpacan — who established Buddhism in Tibet.

It is said that Manjusri (the bodhisattva associated with wisdom, doctrine and awareness) and Samantabhadra (the bodhisattva associated with Truth, and who represents the practice and meditation of all Buddhas), bestowed empowerment upon the king and anointed him. All the Buddhas gave their blessings, and the actual form of Amitabha Buddha arose on his head[15] (and this is how he is usually depicted in artworks).

It is said in the inscription on the Skar-cung pillar (erected by Ralpacan, who ruled c. 800-815) that during Songtsän Gampo's reign, "shrines of the Three Jewels were established by building the temple of Ra-sa [Lhasa] and so on".[16] The first edict of Trisong Detsen mentions a community of monks at this vihara.[17]






620s

Songtsän Gampo is traditionally said to have married the Nepalese Princess Bhrikuti Devi, (which, if true, probably took place sometime before 624).[18] He was adept at diplomacy as well as on the field of battle. The king's minister, Myang Mang-po-rje, with the aid of troops from Zhang Zhung (Tang Chinese: 羊同 Yangtong), defeated the Sumpa (Chinese: Subi) people in north-eastern Tibet circa 627 (Old Tibetan Annals [OTA] l. 2).


630s

Six years later (c. 632/633) Myang Mang-po-rje Zhang-shang was accused of treason and executed (OTA l. 4-5, Richardson 1965). Minister Mgar-srong-rtsan succeeded him.

The Jiu Tangshu records the first ever embassy from Tibet arrived in China from Songtsän Gampo in the 8th Zhenguan year or 634 CE.[19]

The Conquest of Zhang Zhung
Emperor Songtsän Gampo with Princesses Wen Cheng and Bhrikuti Devi

There is some confusion as to whether Central Tibet conquered Zhang Zhung during the reign of Songtsän Gampo or in the reign of Trisong Detsän (Wylie: Khri-srong-lde-btsan), (r. 755 until 797 or 804 CE).[20] The records of the Tang Annals do, however, seem to clearly place these events in the reign of Songtsän Gampo for they say that in 634, Yangtong (Zhang Zhung) and various Qiang tribes "altogether submitted to him." Following this he united with the country of Yangtong to defeat the 'Azha or Tuyuhun, and then conquered two more tribes of Qiang before threatening Songzhou with an army of more than 200,000 men. He then sent an envoy with gifts of gold and silk to the Chinese emperor to ask for a Chinese princess in marriage and, when refused, attacked Songzhou. He apparently finally retreated and apologised and later the emperor granted his request.[21][22]

Early Tibetan accounts say that the Tibetan king and the king of Zhang Zhung king had married each other's sisters in a political alliance. However, the Tibetan wife of the king of the Zhang Zhung complained of poor treatment by the king's principal wife. War ensued and through the treachery of the Tibetan princess, "King Ligmikya of Zhangzhung, while on his way to Sum-ba (Amdo province) was ambushed and killed by King Srongtsen Gampo's soldiers. As a consequence, The Zhangzhung kingdom was annexed to Bod [Central Tibet]. Thereafter the new kingdom born of the unification of Zhangzhung and Bod was known as Bod rGyal-khab."[23][24][25] R. A. Stein places the conquest of Zhang Zhung in 645.[26]

Further Campaigns

He next attacked and defeated the Dangxian or "Western Xia" people (who later formed the Tangut state in 942 CE), the Bailan, and other Qiang tribes.[27][28] The Bailan people, were bounded on the east by the Tanguts and on the west by the Domi. They had been subject to the Chinese since 624.[29]

After a successful campaign against China in the frontier province of Songzhou in 635–6 (OTA l. 607),[30] the Chinese emperor agreed to send a Chinese princess for Songtsän Gampo to marry.

Circa 639, after Songtsän Gampo had a dispute with his younger brother Tsänsong (Brtsan-srong), the younger brother was burnt to death by his own minister Khäsreg (Mkha’s sregs) (possibly at the behest of his older brother, the emperor).[31][32]

640s

The (Jiu) Tangshu, or Book of Tang, records that when the the king of 泥婆羅 Nipoluo Nepal,[33] the father of Licchavi king Naling Deva (or Narendradeva), died, an uncle (Yu.sna kug.ti = Vishnagupta) usurped the throne.[34] "The Tibetans gave him refuge and reestablished him on his throne [in 641]; that is how he became subject to Tibet."[35][36][37]

Sometime later, but still within the Zhenguan period (627-650 CE), the Tibetans sent an envoy to Nepal where the king received him "joyfully" and, later, when a Tibetan mission was attacked in India around 647,[38] the Nepalese king came to their aid.[39]

The Chinese Princess Wencheng (Tibetan: Mung-chang Kungco), niece of the powerful Emperor Taizong of Tang China, left China in 640 to marry Songtsän Gampo, arriving the next year. Peace between China and Tibet prevailed for the remainder of Songtsän Gampo's reign.

Both wives are considered to have been incarnations of Tara (Tibetan - Drolma), the Goddess of Compassion, the female aspect of Chenrezig, (Sanskrit: Avolokiteshvara):

"Dolma, or Drolma (Sanskrit Tara). The two wives of King Srong-btsan gambo are worshipped under this name. The Chinese princess is called Dol-kar, of "the white Dolma," and the Nepalese princess Dol-jang, or "the green Dolma." The latter is prayed to by women for fecundity."[40]
The Jokhang Temple, home of the most venerated statue in Tibet, the original complex built by this king.

The Tangshu or Book of Tang adds that Songstän Gampo thereupon built a city for the Chinese princess, and palace for her within its walls.

"As the princess disliked their custom of painting their faces red, Lungstan (Songtsän Gampo) ordered his people to put a stop to the practice, and it was no longer done. He also discarded his felt and skins, put on brocade and silk, and gradually copied Chinese civilization. He also sent the children of his chiefs and rich men to request admittance into the national school to be taught the classics, and invited learned scholars from China to compose his official reports to the emperor." [41]

Songtsän Gampo’s sister Sad-mar-kar was sent to marry Lig-myi-rhya, the king of Zhang-zhung. However, when the king refused to consummate the marriage, she then helped Songtsän Gampo to defeat Lig myi-rhya and incorporate the Zhang-zhung of Western Tibet into the Tibetan Empire in 645,[42] thus gaining control of most, if not all, of the Tibetan plateau.

Following the visit by the famous Chinese pilgrim monk, Xuanzang, to the court of Harsha, the king of Magadha, Harsha sent a mission to China which, in turn, responded by sending an embassy consisting of Li Yibiao and Wang Xuanze who probably travelled through Tibet, and whose journey is commemorated in inscriptions at Rajagrha - modern Rajgir, and Bodhgaya.

Wang Xuanze made a second journey in 648 but he was badly treated by Harsha's successor and his mission plundered. This elicited a response from Tibetan and Nepalese troops who, together, soundly defeated the Indians.[43][44]

According to the Tibetan Annals, Songtsän Gampo must have died in 649,[45] and in 650 the Tang emperor sent an envoy with a "letter of mourning and condolences".[46] His tomb is in the Chongyas Valley near Yalung.[47]

Songtsän Gampo was succeeded by his infant grandson Mangsong Mangtsen or Khri-mang-slon-rtsan, 650-676 CE. Real power was left in the hands of the minister Mgar-srong-rtsan.[48][49] After this point the dates in Tibetan history become somewhat firmer.

Songtsän Gampo's family and wives

Songtsän Gampo with Princesses Wen Cheng and Bhrikuti Devi, Gyantse

Some Dunhuang documents say that, as well as his sister Sad-mar-kar (or Sa-tha-ma-kar), Songtsän Gampo had a younger brother who was betrayed and died in a fire, sometime after 641. Apparently, according to one partially damaged scroll from Dunhuang, there was hostility between Sa-tha-ma-kar and Songtsän Gampo's younger brother, bTzan-srong, who, as a result, was forced to settle in gNyal (an old district to the southeast of Yarlung and across the 5,090 metre (16,700 ft) Yartö Tra Pass, which bordered on modern Bhutan and Arunachel Pradesh in India). But little, if anything, else is known about this brother.[50][51]

Songtsän Gampo is said to have had five wives, the Nepalese princess, Khri b'Tsun, or "Royal Lady" (Bhrikuti Devi),[52] and the Chinese Princess Wencheng, both devout Buddhists, are the best known, but he also married daughters of the King of Zhang-zhung and the King of Minyak, as well as one each from the Ruyong and Mong (or Mang) clans (although other lists exist).[53]

Songtsän Gampo's only son, Gungsrong Gungtsen (Gung-srong gung-btsan), was born to Mangza Tricham (Mang bza' Khri lcham or Mang bza' Khri-mo-mnyen lDong-steng), Princess of Mang, from Tolung (sTod lung), a valley to the west of Lhasa.[54][55][56]

Songtsen Gampo (centre) Princess Wencheng (right) and Bhrikuti Devi of Nepal (left)

Some accounts say that when Gungsrong Gungtsen reached the age of thirteen (twelve by Western reckoning), his father, Songtsän Gampo, retired and he ruled for five years (which could have been the period when Songtsän Gampo was working on the new constitution). Gungsrong Gungtsen is also said to have married 'A-zha Mang-mo-rje when he was thirteen and they had a son, Mangsong Mangtsen (r. 650-676 CE). Gungsrong Gungtsen is said to have only ruled for five years when he died at eighteen. His father, Songtsän Gampo, took the throne again.[57] Gungsrong Gungtsen is said to have been buried at Donkhorda, the site of the royal tombs, to the left of the tomb of his grandfather Namri Songtsen (gNam-ri Srong-btsan). The dates for these events are very unclear.[58][59][60]

Songtsän Gampo was followed by his grandson, Mangsong Mangtsen, probably in 650 CE.

Jokhang as it stands today

Footnotes

  1. ^ Norbu, Thubten Jigme and Turnbull, Colin. Tibet: Its History Religion and People, p. 142. (1968). Chatto & Windus. Reprint: (1987) Penguin Books, England.
  2. ^ Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. Tibet: A Political History (1967), p. 25. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.
  3. ^ Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. Tibet: A Political History (1967), p. 25. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.
  4. ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia (1987), p. 19 and note 31). Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey. ISBN 0-691-02469-3.
  5. ^ Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project. 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, pp. 222-225.
  6. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, p. 443.
  7. ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. 1987. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3, pp. 19-20 (OTC, vi).
  8. ^ Vitali, Roberto. 1990. Early Temples of Central Tibet. Serindia Publications, London, p. 70. ISBN 0-906026-25-3
  9. ^ Snellgrove, David. 1987. Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors. 2 Vols. Shambhala, Boston, Vol. II, p. 372.
  10. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, p. 443.
  11. ^ Dudjom Rinpoche and Jikdrel Yeshe Dorje. The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: its Fundamentals and History. Two Volumes. 1991. Translated and edited by Gyurme Dorje with Matthew Kapstein. Wisdom Publications, Boston. ISBN 0-86171-087-8
  12. ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. 1987. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3, p. 25, n. 71.
  13. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, p. 446.
  14. ^ Sakyapa Sonam Gyaltsen. (1328). Clear Mirror on Royal Genealogy. Translated by McComas Taylor and Lama Choedak Yuthok as: The Clear Mirror: A Traditional Account of Tibet's Golden Age, p. 106. (1996) Snow Lion Publications. Ithica, New York. ISBN 1-55939-048-4.
  15. ^ Sakyapa Sonam Gyaltsen. (1328). Clear Mirror on Royal Genealogy. Translated by McComas Taylor and Lama Choedak Yuthok as: The Clear Mirror: A Traditional Account of Tibet's Golden Age, pp. 111-112. (1996) Snow Lion Publications. Ithica, New York. ISBN 1-55939-048-4.
  16. ^ Richardson, Hugh. A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions (1981), p. 75. Royal Asiatic Society, London. ISBN 0-94759300/4.
  17. ^ Beckwith, C. I. "The Revolt of 755 in Tibet", p. 3 note 7. In: Weiner Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde. Nos. 10-11. [Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher, eds. Proceedings of the Csoma de Kőrös Symposium Held at Velm-Vienna, Austria, 13-19 September 1981. Vols. 1-2.] Vienna, 1983.
  18. ^ Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project. 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 225.
  19. ^ Lee, Don Y. The History of Early Relations between China and Tibet: From Chiu t'ang-shu, a documentary survey, pp. 6-7. (1981). Eastern Press, Bloomington, Indiana. ISBN 0-939758-00-8.
  20. ^ Karmey, Samten G. (1975). "'A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon", p. 180. Memoirs of Research Department of The Toyo Bunko, No, 33. Tokyo.
  21. ^ Lee, Don Y. (1981). The History of Early Relations between China and Tibet: From Chiu t'ang-shu, a documentary survey, pp. 7-9. Eastern Press, Bloomington, IN.
  22. ^ Pelliot, Paul. (1961). Histoire ancienne du Tibet, pp. 3-4. Librairie d'Amérique et d'orient, Paris.
  23. ^ Norbu, Namkhai. (1981). The Necklace of Gzi, A Cultural History of Tibet, p. 30. Information Office of His Holiness The Dalai Lama, Dharamsala, H.P., India.
  24. ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (1987). The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia, p. 20. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Fourth printing with new afterword and 1st paperback version. ISBN 0-691-02469-3.
  25. ^ Allen, Charles. The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History, pp. 127-128. (1999). Reprint: (2000). Abacus, London. ISBN 0-349-11142-1.
  26. ^ Stein, R. A. (1972). Tibetan Civilization, p. 59. Stanford University Press, Stanford California. ISBn 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.
  27. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, pp. 443-444.
  28. ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. 1987. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3, pp. 22-23.
  29. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, p. 528, n. 13
  30. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, p. 444.
  31. ^ Richardson, Hugh E. (1965). "How Old was Srong Brtsan Sgampo," Bulletin of Tibetology 2.1. pp. 5-8.
  32. ^ OTA l. 8-10
  33. ^ Pelliot, Paul. Histoire Ancienne du Tibet. Paris. Libraire d'amérique et d'orient. 1961, p. 12.
  34. ^ Vitali, Roberto. 1990. Early Temples of Central Tibet. Serindia Publications, London, p. 71. ISBN 0-906026-25-3
  35. ^ Snellgrove, David. 1987. Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors. 2 Vols. Shambhala, Boston, Vol. II, p. 372.
  36. ^ Chavannes, Édouard . Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux. 1900. Paris, Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient. Reprint: Taipei. Cheng Wen Publishing Co. 1969, p. 186.
  37. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, pp. 529, n. 31.
  38. ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 62. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk., p. 59.
  39. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, pp. 529-530, n. 31.
  40. ^ Das, Sarat Chandra. (1902), Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet. Reprint: Mehra Offset Press, Delhi. 1988, p. 165, note.
  41. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, p. 545.
  42. ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 62. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk., p. 59.
  43. ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 62. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk., pp. 58-59
  44. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, p. 446
  45. ^ Bacot, J., et al. Documents de Touen-houang relatifs à l'Histoire du Tibet. (1940), p. 30. Libraire orientaliste Paul Geunther, Paris.
  46. ^ Lee, Don Y. The History of Early Relations between China and Tibet: From Chiu t'ang-shu, a documentary survey, p. 13. (1981). Eastern Press, Bloomington, Indiana. ISBN 0-939758-00-8.
  47. ^ Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. Tibet: A Political History (1967), p. 29. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.
  48. ^ Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XII, 1880, p. 446.
  49. ^ Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project. 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 230.
  50. ^ Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project. 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 216.
  51. ^ Choephel, Gedun. The White Annals. Translated by Samten Norboo. (1978), p. 77. Library of Tibetan Works & Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India.
  52. ^ Snellgrove, David. 1987. Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors. 2 Vols. Shambhala, Boston, Vol. II, p. 416.
  53. ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 62. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk.
  54. ^ Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project. 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 215, 224-225.
  55. ^ Gyaltsen, Sakyapa Sonam (1312-1375). The Clear Mirror: A Traditional Account of Tibet's Golden Age, p. 188. Translated by McComas Taylor and Lama Choedak Yuthob. (1996) Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, New York. ISBN 1-55939-048-4.
  56. ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 63. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk.
  57. ^ Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. (1967). Tibet: A Political History, p. 27. Yale University Press. New Haven and London.
  58. ^ Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project. 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 215, 224-225.
  59. ^ Gyaltsen, Sakyapa Sonam (1312-1375). The Clear Mirror: A Traditional Account of Tibet's Golden Age, p. 192. Translated by McComas Taylor and Lama Choedak Yuthob. (1996) Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, New York. ISBN 1-55939-048-4.
  60. ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 63. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk.

References

  • Richardson, Hugh E. (1965). "How Old was Srong Brtsan Sgampo" Bulletin of Tibetology 2.1. pp 5-8.

External links

  • [1] A list of Licchavi kings and their attributed dates, from: "A Kushan-period Sculpture from the reign of Jaya Varma-, A.D. 184/185. Kathmandu, Nepal." Kashinath Tamot and Ian Alsop. See: [2]
Regnal titles
Preceded by Songtsän Gampo
605 or 617?-649 		Succeeded by
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