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Paleolithic diet

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Neanderthal Hunter (American Mus. Nat. Hist.) Template:3d alt

A Paleolithic-style diet, popularly known as a Paleolithic diet, paleo diet, prehistoric diet, caveman diet, stone age diet or hunter-gatherer diet, is a contemporary diet regime, consisting of commonly available modern foods, that emulates the diet of wild plants and animals that various human species (see Homo (genus)) habitually consumed during the Paleolithic (the Old Stone Age), a period of about 2 million years duration, ending about 10,000 years ago, when Homo sapiens invented agriculture. Advocates of this nutritional approach differ in their dietary prescriptions, but all agree that people today should eat mainly lean meat, fish, vegetables, fruit, roots and nuts, and avoid grains, legumes, dairy products, salt and processed fat and sugar.[1][2][3]

This dietary concept is part of a theoretical template for health promotion based on the principles of evolutionary medicine and the emerging field of evolutionary nutrition.[4] Proponents of the diet consider that the best foods for the human body are those that humans are best adapted to eat, arguing that many modern ailments are diet related and can be avoided using this nutritional approach.[5] They believe that human genetics have scarcely changed since the Paleolithic Era, and therefore that an ideal diet would be a reconstructed prehistoric diet such as the one humans and proto-humans consumed before the Neolithic Revolution.[6]

In support of this theory, advocates argue that modern human populations subsisting on traditional diets similar to that of Paleolithic hominins seem to be largely free of diseases of affluence,[7] and that such diets appear to produce beneficial health outcomes in controlled medical studies.[8] In this regard, supporters point to several potentially therapeutic nutritional characteristics of hunter-gatherer diets.[6] However, critics have taken issue with the evolutionary logic underlying this nutritional approach,[9][10] and have disputed certain dietary prescriptions on the grounds that they pose health risks[9][11] and may not reflect real Paleolithic diets.[12][10] Moreover, it is argued that such diets may not be a realistic alternative for everyone,[13] and environmental concerns have been expressed.[14][15]

Theory

According to S. Boyd Eaton, an associate clinical professor of radiology and an adjunct associate professor of anthropology at Emory University: "We are the heirs of inherited characteristics accrued over millions of years; the vast majority of our biochemistry and physiology are tuned to life conditions that existed prior to the advent of agriculture some 10,000 years ago. Genetically our bodies are virtually the same as they were at the end of the Paleolithic Era some 20,000 years ago."[16]

Paleolithic-style diets are based on the premise that natural selection had 2 million or more years to genetically adapt the metabolism and physiology of the various human species to such a diet, and that in the 10,000 years since the invention of agriculture and its consequent major change in the human diet, natural selection has had too little time to make the optimal genetic adaptations to the new diet. Physiological and metabolic maladaptations result from the suboptimal genetic adaptations to the contemporary human diet, which in turn contribute to many of the so-called diseases of civilization.[6][5][4][7]

Loren Cordain, a professor in the Department of Health and Exercise Science at Colorado State University, argues that "today more than 70% of our dietary calories come from foods that our Paleolithic (Stone Age) ancestors rarely, if ever, ate. The result is epidemic levels of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, arthritis, gastrointestinal disease, acne, and more."[17] According to Staffan Lindeberg, an associate professor in the Department of medicine at the University of Lund, the "Paleolithic diet", basically meat, fish, vegetables, fruit and nuts, prevents heart disease, stroke and some forms of cancers and it has a beneficial effect on overweight, digestive problems and more;[18] it may have benefits even compared with prudent diets based on whole-grain cereals and low-fat milk.[19]

History

One of the first suggestions that following a diet similar to that of the late Paleolithic Era would improve a person's health was made in a book[20] published in 1975. It was argued that humans are carnivorous animals and that the Stone Age diet was that of a carnivore - chiefly fats and protein, with only small amounts of carbohydrates.[21][22]

In 1985, a key paper on Paleolithic nutrition was published in the New England Journal of Medicine.[23] This was followed by a book[24] in 1988, which was based on achieving the same proportions of nutrients (fat, protein, and carbohydrates, as well as vitamins and minerals) as were present in the diets of late Paleolithic people, not on excluding foods that were not available before the development of agriculture. As such, this nutritional approach included skimmed milk, whole grain bread, brown rice, and potatoes prepared without fat, on the premise that such foods have the same nutritional properties as Paleolithic foods.[21]

In recent years, several advocates of Paleolithic-style diets have published books[25][26][27] and created Web sites[18][17][28] to promote their dietary prescriptions.

Practices

Paleolithic-style diets focus on eliminating more or less all foods that advocates believe were rarely or never consumed by humans before the Neolithic revolution, such as milk, dairy products, and grains. Proponents have synthesized diets from commonly available modern foods that would emulate the nutritional characteristics of Paleolithic diets, allowing for some foods said to be unavailable to preagricultural peoples, such as cultivated plants and domesticated animal meat, as well as certain processed oils and beverages.[25][26][29][18][30] Dietary prescriptions are based on historical and ethnographic studies of hunter-gatherers as well as archaeological and anthropological evidence of Paleolithic diets.[31][32][6][33]

Permitted foods

Paleolithic-style dish: A raw tomato sauce with olives, celery, spinach and walnuts on courgette 'pasta' noodles.

Restricted foods

Grain products
  • separated fats and oils[18] (some are allowed by certain advocates),

Intake

All foods can be cooked if desired.

Loren Cordain recommends that practitioners derive about 56 – 65% of their calories from animal foods and 36 – 45% from plant foods. He advocates a diet high in protein (19 – 35% calories) and relatively low in carbohydrates (22 – 40% calories), with a fat intake (28 – 58% calories) similar to or higher than that found in Western diets.[36][37] Staffan Lindeberg advocates a Paleolithic-style diet without recommending any particular proportions of plants versus meat or macronutrient ratios.[1][38][31] The diet also calls for an increased consumption of omega-3 fatty acids from animal and plant sources.[39] Furthermore, eating a wide variety of plant foods is recommended to avoid high intakes of potentially harmful bioactive substances, such as goitrogens, which are present in certain roots, vegetables, beans and seeds.[1][31][40] Because calcium intake is often too low on a Paleolithic-style diet, especially when the intake of green leafy vegetables is limited, calcium supplementation may be considered.[1]

Food sources and preparation

The foods' source is just as important as the kind of foods being consumed. It is common practice to obtain foods from as natural a source as possible. Organic food, free range meat and eggs, and grass fed beef, are preferred, as are wild game meats like quail, rabbit, and venison.[41][42]

Furthermore, unlike raw food diets, Paleolithic-style diets allow for the consumption of cooked foods.[25][29][30]

Medical research

A San hunter-gatherer from Namibia

According to S. Boyd Eaton and colleagues, judging from subsistence patterns and biomarkers of hunter-gatherers studied in the last century, modern humans seem to be well adapted to the diet of their Paleolithic ancestors.[43] The diet of modern hunter-gatherer groups is believed to be representative of patterns for humans of 50 to 25 thousand years ago,[43] and these foragers,[44][45] including the elderly,[46][47] seem to be largely free of the signs and symptoms of chronic disease (such as obesity, high blood pressure, nonobstructive coronary atherosclerosis, and insulin resistance) that universally afflict the elderly in western societies (with the exception of osteoarthritis, which afflicts both populations).[43][7] Moreover, when these people adopt western diets, their health declines and they begin to exhibit signs and symptoms of "diseases of civilization".[43] In one clinical study, stroke and ischaemic heart disease appeared to be absent in a population living on the island of Kitava, in Papua New Guinea, where a subsistence lifestyle, uninfluenced by western dietary habits, was still maintained.[46][48]

Paleolithic-style diets also seem to generate beneficial health outcomes in controlled medical studies. The first animal experiment on a "Paleolithic diet" suggested that such a diet as compared with a cereal based diet conferred higher insulin sensitivity, lower C-reactive protein and lower blood pressure in domestic pigs.[49] Subsequently, a short-term intervention with such a diet in healthy volunteers showed some favourable effects on cardiovascular risk factors.[50] In the first controlled human trial on a "Paleolithic diet", researchers found that the diet improved glucose tolerance more than a Mediterranean-like diet in individuals with ischaemic heart disease.[8][51][52]

Nutritional factors

The purported novel foods (dairy products, legumes, cereals, refined cereals, refined sugars, refined vegetable oils, fatty meats, salt, and combinations of these foods) introduced as staples during the Neolithic and Industrial Eras are believed to have fundamentally altered several key nutritional characteristics of Paleolithic diets, and these dietary compositional changes have been implicated as risk factors in the pathogenesis of many of the so-called "diseases of civilization,"[6][53][54] including obesity, cardiovascular disease,[55] diabetes, osteoporosis,[56][57] autoimmune-related diseases,[58] certain cancers,[59][60] and acne,[61][62] as well as many diseases related to vitamin and mineral deficiencies.[58][63][64]

According to Cordain et al., 7 crucial nutritional characteristics of ancestral hominin diets that have been fundamentally altered by food staples and food-processing procedures introduced during the Neolithic and Industrial Periods serve to inhibit the development of diseases of affluence in modern-day hunter-gatherers:[6]

Base-yielding fruits and vegetables, rich in vitamins, potassium and fiber, are staple foods of hunter-gatherer diets.[6]
  • Sodium-potassium ratio: Since no processed foods or added salt are included the sodium intake (~726 mg) is lower than average U.S. values (3,271 mg) or recommended values (2,400 mg). Further, since potassium rich fruits and vegetables comprise ~30% of the daily energy, the potassium content (9,062 mg) is nearly 3.5 times greater than average values (2,620 mg) in the U.S. diet. The sodium-potassium ratio is therefore more balanced.[33][57]
  • Fiber content: Contemporary diets devoid of cereal grains, dairy products, refined oils and sugars, and processed foods have been shown to contain significantly more fiber (42.5 g/d) than either current or recommended values.[33]

Objections to Paleolithic-style diets

High glycemic load tubers, like Potatoes, would not have been part of Paleolithic diets.[33]

Dietary recommendations at odds with evidence of Paleolithic diets

According to Sally Fallon, carbohydrate foods, like grains and starchy root foods were consumed by Paleolithic peoples.[12] Moreover, recent evidence indicates that humans processed and consumed wild cereal grains as far back as 23,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic.[71][72] According to Loren Cordain, this fact does not undermine the premise that Paleolithic hominins rarely or never consumed cereal grains, as it was only when cereal grains were cultivated that humans would have had more than seasonal access to poor yields.[72] Furthermore, he has argued that, although wild tubers would have been a common component in historically studied hunter-gatherer diets,[36] high glycemic load tubers, such as potatoes, which were developed from intensive agricultural inbreeding of wild types, would not have been part of preagricultural diets.[33][72] Also, according to Cordain, for ~90% of the time hominins were present on the planet, that is until they could regularly control fire (~300,000 years ago), cereal grains and most roots were inedible.[72][73]

Misleading evolutionary logic

According to Alexander Ströhle, Maike Wolters and Andreas Hahn,[10] with the Department of Food Science at the University of Hannover, the statement that the human genome has evolved during the Pleistocene (a period from 1,808,000 to 11,550 years ago) is resting on an inadequate, but popular gene-centered view of evolution. They argue that evolution of organisms cannot be reduced to the genetic level with reference to mutation and that there is no one to one relationship between genotype and phenotype.[74]

They further question the notion that 10,000 years since the dawn of agriculture is a period not nearly sufficient to ensure an adequate adaptation to Paleolithic diets.[10] Ströhle et al. argue that the number of generations that a species existed in the old environment is irrelevant, and that the response to the change of the environment of a species would depend on the hereditability of the traits, the intensity of selection and the number of generations that selection acts.[75] They maintain that if the diet of our Neolithic ancestors was in discordance with their physiology, then this would have created a selection pressure for evolutionary change and adaptation to the diet. In response to this argument, Wolfgang Kopp has pointed out that "we have to take into account that death from atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD) occurs later during life, as a rule after the reproduction phase. Even a high mortality from CVD after the reproduction phase will create little selection pressure. Thus, it seems that a diet can be functional (it keeps us going) and dysfunctional (it causes health problems) at the same time."[76] Moreover, S. Boyd Eaton and colleagues have indicated that "comparative genetic data provide compelling evidence against the contention that long exposure to agricultural and industrial circumstances has distanced us, genetically, from our Stone Age ancestors."[7] According to Kopp, "the implementation of high-glycemic/high-insulinogenic food, like refined cereals, potatoes and sugars, into human nutrition only about 200 years, or 10 generations, ago, occurred too recently on an evolutionary time scale for the human genome to adjust."[76]

However, according to Ströhle et al.,[10] "Whatever is the fact, to think that a dietary factor is valuable (functional) to the organism only when there was ‘genetical adaptation’ and hence a new dietary factor is dysfunctional per se because there was no evolutionary adaptation to it, such a panselectionist misreading of biological evolution seems to be inspired by a naive adaptationistic view of life."[77][78]

Katharine Milton, a professor of physical anthropology at the University of California, has also disputed the evolutionary logic behind Paleolithic-style diets. She questions the premise that the metabolism of modern humans must be genetically adapted to the dietary conditions of the Paleolithic.[79] According to Milton, "there is little evidence to suggest that human nutritional requirements or human digestive physiology were significantly affected by such diets at any point in human evolution."[80][81][82][83]

Objections to low-carbohydrate and high-protein versions

The high protein and low-carbohydrate diet[84] recommended by Loren Cordain and colleagues based on worldwide modern hunter-gatherer diets[36][32] has attracted a number of criticisms,[9][85][86][87][88][89][11][10][76][90][91][92] including the following:

No justification for advocating its superior therapeutic merits

Katharine Milton has argued that "hunter-gatherer societies, both recent and ancestral, displayed a wide variety of plant-animal subsistence ratios, illustrating the adaptability of human metabolism to a broad range of energy substrates. Because all hunter-gatherer societies are largely free of chronic degenerative disease, there seems little justification for advocating the therapeutic merits of one type of hunter-gatherer diet over another."[87] Moreover, according to Ströhle, Wolters and Hahn,[10] hunters like the Inuits, who traditionally obtain most of their dietary energy from wild animals and therefore eat a low-carbohydrate diet,[93] seem to have a high mortality from coronary heart disease,[94] and many populations of horticulturists, pastoralists and simple agriculturists living today are ingesting a high-carbohydrate diet without having signs and symptoms of CHD.[46][48][95][96][97] However, according to Wolfgang Kopp, "Carbohydrate food, consumed by hunter-gatherers, is high in fiber and low-glycemic in effect,[98][99] eliciting small amounts of insulin only. [...] Are high-carbohydrate diets atherogenic per se? Not if they have a low glycemic load. In this point, Stroehle et al. are right. However, it is the question, whether diets high in low-glycemic plant food (which is relatively high in indigestible fiber and relatively low in carbohydrate) should be labeled as “high-carbohydrate” diets."[76] Kopp further points out that it is very likely that diets with only a moderately increased glycemic load are atherogenic to some degree.[100][55]

Not all Paleolithic diets would have been low in carbohydrate and high in protein

Carbohydrate rich root vegetables may have been eaten in high amounts by Paleolithic humans.[101]

Ströhle et al.[10] have pointed out that "today, due to limited methods and data, there is only limited knowledge about what our preagricultural ancestors had eaten."[78][102][103] Furthermore, according to Katharine Milton, "data from ethnographic studies of nineteenth and twentieth century hunter-gatherers, as well as historical accounts and the archeological record, suggest that ancestral hunter-gatherers enjoyed a rich variety of different diets. Thus estimates of nutrient proportions for "the Paleolithic diet" are hypothetical, at best."[79] Echoing Milton's criticism, Ströhle et al.[10] argue that it is questionable if all hunter–gatherers living between 150,000 and 10,000 years ago in different geographical regions ate a low-carbohydrate diet.[104][105][1] They indicate that, because the plant–animal subsistence ratios of contemporary hunter–gatherers vary in a remarkable manner (0–90% food from gathering; 10–100% food from hunting and fishing),[106][107] it is likely that the macronutrient intake of preagricultural humans varied enormously.[104] They also refer to a hypothesis (the 'Plant underground storage organs hypotheses') that suggests that carbohydrate tubers were eaten in high amounts by our preagricultural ancestors.[101][108][109][110] They add: "Provided that humans are incapable of metabolizing high amounts of dietary protein and given the fact that wild African mammals are relatively low in fat, a diet supplemented with carbohydrates from tubers seems to be more efficient in meeting the energy requirements of early hunters and gatherers than a diet based on lean meat."[111][112] Ströhle et al. further mention that Staffan Lindeberg, an advocate of a "Paleolithic diet", has accounted for a plant-based diet rich in carbohydrates as being consistent with the human evolutionary past.[1][5]

Concerns about toxins in animal fat

According to Erica Frank, vice-chairwoman of Family & Preventive Medicine at Emory University, when you eat an animal, you're eating toxins stored in its body fat. She quotes the EPA: "The average American intake is between 300 and 500 times the safe daily dose of dioxin," She argues that Dioxin, which is stored in animal fat, is a cancer-causing substance and disrupts hormones and the immune system. "People would be in error if they think they're doing themselves a service by eating bison."[11]

Sustainability concerns

Paleolithic-style diets have been criticized on the grounds that they are unobtainable for much of humanity.[13] According to Loren Cordain, if such a diet was widely adopted, it would compromise the food security of populations dependent on cereal grains for their subsistence. However, he points out that where cereals are not a necessity, such as in most western countries, reverting to a grain-free diet can be highly practical in terms of cutting long-term healthcare costs.[72] Barry Bogin, a professor of anthropology at the University of Michigan, argues that less intensive farming techniques, such as pasture-grazed cattle, will not produce sufficient meat to feed the world’s population.[113] Concerns have also been raised about the detrimental effects of a meat-based Paleolithic-style diet on the environment.[14][15] Whether a diet can be considered environmentally sustainable depends on the ratio of plant to animal foods consumed, the type of animal foods eaten and the sources of these foods.[114][115][116][117][118]

See also

General information

Related diets and people

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c d e f Lindeberg, Staffan (June 2005). "Palaeolithic diet ("stone age" diet)". Scandinavian Journal of Food & Nutrition. 49 (2): 75–77. doi:10.1080/11026480510032043.
  2. ^ Kligler, Benjamin; Lee, Roberta A., ed. (2004). "Paleolithic diet". Integrative medicine. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 700 pages. ISBN 007140239X.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  3. ^ "Definition of Paleolithic diet". MedicineNet. 2006-10-16. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  4. ^ a b Eaton SB, Strassman BI, Nesse RM, Neel JV, Ewald PW, Williams GC, Weder AB, Eaton SB 3rd, Lindeberg S, Konner MJ, Mysterud I, Cordain L. (2002 Feb). "Evolutionary health promotion" (PDF). Prev Med. 34 (2): 109–18. doi:10.1006/pmed.2001.0876. PMID 11817903. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ a b c Lindeberg S, Cordain L, and Eaton SB (2003). "Biological and clinical potential of a Paleolithic diet" (PDF). J Nutri Environ Med (3): 149–160. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |vol= ignored (|volume= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, Mann N, Lindeberg S, Watkins BA, O'Keefe JH, Brand-Miller J (2005). "Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81 (2): 341–54. PMID 15699220.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "Cordain8" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  7. ^ a b c d Eaton, SB, Cordain, L, and Lindeberg, S. (2002). "Evolutionary Health Promotion. A consideration of common counter-arguments" (PDF). Prev Med (34): 119–123. doi:10.1006/pmed.2001.0966. PMID 11817904.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "pmid11817904" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. ^ a b Lindeberg S, Jönsson T, Granfeldt Y, Borgstrand E, Soffman J, Sjöström K, Ahrén B (2007 Sep). "A Palaeolithic diet improves glucose tolerance more than a Mediterranean-like diet in individuals with ischaemic heart disease" (PDF). Diabetologia. 50 (9): 1795–807. doi:10.1007/s00125-007-0716-y. PMID 17583796. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ströhle A, Wolters M, Hahn A. (2007 Jan). "Carbohydrates and the diet-atherosclerosis connection--more between earth and heaven. Comment on the article "The atherogenic potential of dietary carbohydrate"". Prev Med. 44 (1): 82–4. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.08.014. PMID 16997359. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ a b c Jeanie Lerche, Davis (2002-03-15). "The Caveman Diet - Eat Like a Caveman". MedicineNet. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  12. ^ a b Fallon, Sally (2002-03-30). "All Thumbs Book Reviews: The Paleo Diet, By Loren Cordain, PhD". The Weston A. Price Foundation. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  13. ^ a b Moffat, Tina (2001). "Book Review - Evolutionary Aspects of Nutrition and Health: Diet, Exercise, Genetics and Chronic Disease". Human Biology. 73 (2): 327–329.
  14. ^ a b Helwig, David. "Paleolithic diet". Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  15. ^ a b McMichael AJ (2005 Sep). "Integrating nutrition with ecology: balancing the health of humans and biosphere". Public Health Nutr. 8 (6A): 706–15. doi:10.1079/PHN2005769. PMID 16236205. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  16. ^ Eaton SB, Eaton SB, Konner MJ (1997). "Paleolithic nutrition revisited: a twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implications" (PDF). European journal of clinical nutrition. 51 (4): 207–16. PMID 9104571.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ a b Cordain, Loren. "The Science of Healthy Eating". The Paleo Diet. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  18. ^ a b c d e Lindeberg, Staffan. "Home". Paleolithic Diet in Medical Nutrition. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  19. ^ Lindeberg, Staffan. "Our Research". Paleolithic Diet in Medical Nutrition. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  20. ^ Voegtlin, Walter L (1975). The stone age diet: Based on in-depth studies of human ecology and the diet of man. Vantage Press. pp. 277 pages. ISBN 0533013143.
  21. ^ a b Fallon, Sally (2000-01-01). "Caveman Cuisine". The Weston A. Price Foundation. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "westonaprice22" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  22. ^ "Functional and Structural Comparison of Man's Digestive Tract with that of a Dog and Sheep". Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  23. ^ Eaton SB, Konner M (1985). "Paleolithic nutrition. A consideration of its nature and current implications". N. Engl. J. Med. 312 (5): 283–9. PMID 2981409.
  24. ^ Eaton, S. Boyd (1988). The Paleolithic Prescription: A Program of Diet & Exercise and a Design for Living. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060158719. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ a b c d Audette, Ray V.; Gilchrist, Troy; Raymond V. Audette; Eades, Michael R. (2000). Neanderthin : Eat Like a Caveman to Achieve a Lean, Strong, Healthy Body. New York: St. Martin's Paperbacks. ISBN 0312975910.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  27. ^ Cordain, Loren; Friel, Joe; (2005). The Paleo Diet for Athletes : A Nutritional Formula for Peak Athletic Performance. Emmaus, Pa: Rodale Books. ISBN 1594860890.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ De Vany, Arthur. "ArthurDeVany.com". Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
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  31. ^ a b c Lindeberg, S. Modern human physiology with respect to evolutionary adaptations that relate to diet in the past, in "The Evolution of Hominid Diets: integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence", M.P. Richards and J.J. Hublin, Editors. in press, Elsevier. [1] [2] Cite error: The named reference "Staffan3" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  32. ^ a b Cordain L. Implications of Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diets for Modern Humans. In: Early Hominin Diets: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable. Ungar, P (Ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006, pp 363-83. Cite error: The named reference "Cordain453" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
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  35. ^ a b Cordain, Loren (2006-07-15). "Root foods in perspective" (pdf). The Paleo Diet Newsletter. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  36. ^ a b c d Cordain L, Miller JB, Eaton SB, Mann N, Holt SH, Speth JD (2000). "Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hunter-gatherer diets". Am J Clin Nutr. 71 (3): 682–92. PMID 10702160.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  38. ^ Lindeberg, Staffan. "Old and new concepts of healthy eating - Conclusions". Paleolithic Diet in Medical Nutrition. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
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Bibliography

  • Audette, Ray V.; Gilchrist, Troy; Raymond V. Audette; Eades, Michael R. (2000). Neanderthin : Eat Like a Caveman to Achieve a Lean, Strong, Healthy Body. New York: St. Martin's Paperbacks. ISBN 0312975910.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Cordain, Loren (2002). The Paleo Diet: Lose Weight and Get Healthy by Eating the Food You Were Designed to Eat. Hoboken, N.J., New York: Wiley. ISBN 0471267554.
  • Cordain, Loren; Friel, Joe; (2005). The Paleo Diet for Athletes : A Nutritional Formula for Peak Athletic Performance. Emmaus, Pa: Rodale Books. ISBN 1594860890.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Eaton, S. Boyd (1988). The Paleolithic Prescription: A Program of Diet & Exercise and a Design for Living. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060158719. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Pollan, Michael (13 Apr 2006). The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals. The Penguin Press. pp. 450 pp. ISBN 1594200823.
  • Voegtlin, Walter L (1975). The stone age diet: Based on in-depth studies of human ecology and the diet of man. Vantage Press. pp. 277 pages. ISBN 0533013143.
  • Aird, William C., ed. (2007). Endothelial Biomedicine. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1500 pp. ISBN 0521853761.
  • Richards, M.P. & Hublin, J.J., ed. (2008). The Evolution of Hominid Diets: integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence. New York: Springer (in press).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • Ungar, Peter S., ed. (2006). Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable (Human Evolution Series). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195183460.

Media reports

Further reading

External links

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