Buddhist philosophy

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Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems of metaphysics , phenomenology , ethics , epistemology and systems theory . According to the claim, it should not fall back on ontological or metaphysical speculations that are gained through empirical approaches based on the sense organs.

Buddha is said to have taken a negative attitude towards speculative thinking in general. A fundamental thought of the Buddha is that the world should be thought of in procedural terms. He recommended seeing reality as dependent appearances. In Buddhist traditions, the extremes of reification and nihilism are avoided.

Aspects of Buddhist philosophy have often been the subject of disputes between different schools of Buddhism . While a theory for its own sake is considered worthless in Buddhism, a theory in the interests of enlightenment ( Bodhi ) is in line with Buddhist ethics and values.

philosophy

Historical context

The Buddhism is one of the heterodox systems of Indian philosophy, of which the authority of the Vedas is not accepted. To him belong u. a. following currents:

  1. Theravada or Vibhajjavada, the "school of discernment" (Theravada Buddhism as the school of Hinayana Buddhism)
  2. Sarvastivada or Vaibhashika, the "school of everything is" or "school of detailed explanation" (Hinayana Buddhism)
  3. Sautrantika or "Sutra School" (Hinayana Buddhism)
  4. Yogācāra or Vijñānavāda , the "only school of consciousness" ( Mahayana Buddhism )
  5. Madhyamaka , the "school of the middle way" (Mahayana Buddhism)

Early Buddhism included a trait heavily influenced by skepticism . The Buddha warned his followers to stay away from spiritual disputes for their own sake, stressing the fruitlessness and danger of being distracted from the practice of enlightenment . However, the Buddha's teaching had an important philosophical component: It negated main claims of opposing positions while defining itself on a new philosophical and religious level. In a skeptical manner, Buddha asserted the unreality of the ego against the sages of the Upanishads who sought knowledge of an immutable ultimate self. The Buddha took a new, contradicting position, stating that attachment to a permanent self in this world of change is the cause of suffering and the main obstacle to liberation from the chain of birth, death and rebirth (in Hinduism: Moksha , in Buddhism: nirvana ). In the same way, he negated the existence of a supreme deity or essential substance. He criticized the Brahmanic theories of an absolute as a further stage of reification. Instead, the Buddha taught a path to self-perfecting as a means of overcoming samsara .

The Buddha broke new ground by also explaining the reason for the apparent ego: It was merely the result of the aggregates or skandhas , i.e. H. the sensations of the material body with its sense organs, the feelings, the perception, the mental formations and finally the consciousness, while in Hinduism an I-consciousness ( Ahamkara ) is described in the area of ​​the mental Antahkarana .

The Hindu master Shankara responded much later with the Advaita-Vedanta teaching (philosophy of non-duality and the unity of the soul with Brahman), a strengthening of the position of the Atman (Atma-Bodha), and strongly pushed back Buddhism in India. Sri Aurobindo as a representative of the Sanatana Dharma described nirvana as "not the transition to non-being, but to a higher existence" and a stage to even higher realizations.

Epistemology

The main difference between Buddhism and what is commonly referred to as Hinduism is the question of epistemological justification. All schools of Indian logic recognize different types of valid justifications as knowledge or pramana (sources of knowledge). Buddhism knows a lot that is smaller than the others.

All accept perception and inference, for example, but for some schools of Hinduism and Buddhism the received textual tradition is an epistemological category equal to perception and inference.

Thus, in the Hindu schools, an assertion that could not be substantiated by a quotation from the text canon is considered as ridiculous as an assertion that the sky is green, and vice versa, an assertion that could not be corroborated by conventional means, could possibly still be corroborated by textual reference, in contrast to the epistemology of exact science.

Some schools of Buddhism, on the other hand, rejected a rigid reverence for the accepted teaching.

As the Buddha said according to the canonical scriptures :

  • Don't accept anything just because of tradition ...
  • Do not accept anything just because it is consistent with their scriptures ...
  • Don't accept anything just because it fits your preconceived ideas ...
  • But if you know by yourself - these things are moral, these things are innocent, these things are praised by the wise, these things lead to well-being and happiness - then you should act accordingly.

Early Buddhist philosophers and exegetes of a certain early school, the Sarvestivadins , the opponents of Mahayana, created a pluralistic metaphysical and phenomenological system in which all experiences of people, things and events were divided into ever smaller or ontological units of perception called dharmas .

Other schools incorporated some parts of this theory and criticized others. The Sauträntikas , another early school, and the Theravadins, the only surviving early Buddhist school, criticized the realistic view of the Sarvästivädins.

The Mahayanist Nagarjuna promoted the classical Buddhist emphasis on the phenomena of the middle way and emphasized the equivalence of conditioned arising and emptiness and attacked the Sarvastivada realism and the Sautrantika nominalism in his main work 'The basic verses about the middle way'. He provided a detailed elaboration of the concept of voidness (Sanskrit śūnyatā) in direct connection with arising in dependence (Sanskrit pratītyasamutpāda) as well as the further development of the doctrine of the 'two truths' (Sanskrit satyadvaya)

Conditional arising and emptiness

What many scholars see as the original positive Buddhist contribution in the field of metaphysics is ' dependent arising ' (pratityasamutpada). It states that events are neither predetermined nor random, and it rejects notions of immediate causation that are inevitably underpinned by substantialist metaphysics . Instead, it relies on the emergence of events under certain inseparable conditions, so that the processes in question are never considered entities . The law of dependent arising goes on to state that certain events, concepts or realities are always dependent on certain other things.

Desire, for example, is always dependent on and caused by emotion. Emotion is always dependent on contact with our environment. This causal chain shows that the cessation of decline, death and worry is indirectly dependent on the cessation of desire.

Nagarjuna claims there is a direct connection between and also a dependency on the origin or even an identity between Anatta and Shunyata . He pointed out that the early Buddhist concept of dependent origination tacitly included the 'lack of an essential being' (anatta) underlying the participants in an origination, a state known as emptiness ( sunyata ), or also emptiness an essential nature (Svabhava or self-nature).

The Heart Sutra or 'Sutra of Supreme Wisdom', in which the emptiness of forms is emphasized (form is emptiness, emptiness is form), was decisively coined by Nagarjuna as the briefest summary of the so-called Prajñāpāramitā (wisdom of the other bank) .

In the Prajñāpāramitā counting Diamond Sutra , the Buddha teaches the existence of two realities or two truths:

  1. on the one hand the world of form, the world of sensually experienceable phenomena, the world of deceptive, one-sided, perceptions and congealed in signs and concepts
  2. on the other hand: the world of emptiness (Shunyata), a sphere beyond form, beyond birth and death, beginning and end, self and not-self and beyond all concepts. But form and emptiness are ultimately one and a question of imagination or perception.

Entanglement

'Mutual penetration' or 'merging' (Wylie: zung 'jug; Sanskrit: yuganaddha;): This teaching comes from the Avatamsaka Sutra , a Mahayana script, and the schools associated with it. It says that all "phenomena" (Sanskrit: Dharmas) are closely related and contained in one another. Two images are used to convey this idea:

The first is known as the Network of Indra. The net is studded with gemstones that have the extraordinary property that they mirror all other gemstones. (Book 28, The Book of the Wonderfulness of Buddha)

The second picture is that of the 'World Text'. This image shows the world as being made up of an enormous text as big as the universe itself. The words of the text are formed from the appearances that make up the world. However, every atom in the world contains the entire text within itself. It is the work of a Buddha to leave the text out so that beings can be freed from suffering.

The upaya doctrine of permeation influenced the Japanese monk Kukai, who founded the Shingon school of Buddhism. Interweaving and essence function inform one another in the East Asian Buddhist traditions, especially in the Korean Buddhist tradition. The Upaya doctrine of penetration is represented iconographically by the yab-yum .

ethics

Although there are many ethical principles ( Vinayapitaka ) in Buddhism, which differ depending on whether one is a monk or a layman, and which also vary from school to school, Buddhist ethics can be summarized in the eightfold middle path ( Samyutta Nikaya LVI.11).

'And this, monks, is the noble truth of the path of practice that leads to the cessation of suffering - precisely this Noble Eightfold Path :' right knowledge, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness 'right concentration (Pali: samma)'.

The purpose of an ethical life is to escape the inherent suffering of samsara . Skillful actions condition the state of mind in a positive way and lead to future happiness, while the opposite is true for awkward actions. Ethical discipline also provides mental stability and freedom to begin mental cultivation through meditation .

Buddha taught that through insight into the nature of existence and the wisdom of “not-self” or “self-lessness” ( anatta ), all sentient beings who follow the noble eightfold path dispel ignorance and with it suffering. Thus, Buddhism is not about the concept of a creator god, but about the personal practice of ethics, meditation and wisdom .

An example of applied ethics is the Medicine Buddha , whose function it is to heal living beings from the 'three poisons'. Ignorance of the non-existence of an ego (Ti-mug) is the most important cause of all suffering. As long as a person has self-awareness, he inherently carries the disease with him. From this self-awareness arises the attachment and the rejection. The most important cause of illness from a Buddhist point of view is therefore the state of mind. Greed and clinging, anger and hatred, as well as the illusion of believing in an inherent reality, are associated with specific disease patterns, they lead to an imbalance of the elements and the three body principles.

Philosophy or religion

Buddhism can be viewed as either a practical and spiritual philosophy or a belief-based religion. In the South and East Asian cultures where Buddhism developed, the distinction between philosophy and religion is not always strongly present. As such, the need to classify Buddhism is more of a semantic problem.

Proponents of the view that Buddhism is a philosophy argue that (a) Buddhism is non-theistic in that it has no particular use for the existence or non-existence of any god or gods, and (b) that religion brings with it theism, which is contested by proponents of the alternative view that Buddhism is a religion.

Mainly in Mahayana there is a large pantheon of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas , many of whom are also Hindu deities ( Sarasvati , Lokeshvara ) who serve as objects of prayer and meditation ( Tib.Yidam ), and the Tathagatagarbha teaching can therefore also be interpreted in a theistic sense.

Another argument for Buddhism as a philosophy is that Buddhism does not have teachings in the same sense as the other religions. Instead, Buddhism offers specific methods for applying the philosophical principles, although this is also controversial. Regardless of its formal structure, Buddhism is a religion with a rich philosophical content.

Lama Anagarika Govinda put it in 'One Living Buddhism' for the West as follows: So we could say that the Buddha-Dharma is:

  1. as experience and as a way of practical realization, a religion
  2. as the intellectual formulation of this experience, a philosophy
  3. and as a result of introspection and analysis, a psychology

Those who take this path acquire a norm of behavior that is not dictated from outside but is the result of an internal process of maturation and what we can call morality with reference to outside.

history

Early development

Certain basic teachings appear in many places in the early texts, so that most scholars conclude that the Buddha was at least something like that

  1. the three characteristics - impermanence, inadequacy, without any real essence
  2. the five aggregates - the aggregates
  3. Dependent arising - dependent arising
  4. Karma and rebirth
  5. Four noble truths
  6. Eightfold Path - Wisdom, Morality, Immersion
  7. Nirvana - leaving samsara
  8. Karuna - universal compassion as part of Brahmavihara

must have taught.

Some scientists have suggested other theories. According to such scholars, there was something like 'earliest Buddhism', primitive Buddhism, or pre-canon Buddhism ( Ekayana ).

The Buddha rejected certain precepts of Indian philosophy that became known during his lifetime.

According to some scholars, the philosophical outlook of earliest Buddhism was primarily negative in the sense that it focused more on which teachings to reject than which to accept. This dimension was also found in the Madhyamaka school. It contains critical rejections of all views on what a form of philosophy is, but it has been reluctant to define its own. Only knowledge that is useful in attaining enlightenment is valued.

According to this theory, the cycle of philosophical upheavals, which in part led to the diversification of Buddhism into its many schools and sects, began only when Buddhists began to attempt to explicitly create the Buddha's implicit philosophy and early discourses ( suttas ).

After the Buddha's death, attempts were made to collect his teachings and apply them in a mutually agreed form, first orally and then also in written form ( Tripitaka : Vinaya or rules of the order, sutta or discourses, Abhidhamma , the third part of the Pali canon ) hand down.

The Abhidhamma also contains the term Vijnana (Skt. Viññāṇa), which describes the relative, world-related knowledge that arises through the mental activity of consciousness, which is also used synonymously with Citta-vijnana (mind or knowing consciousness). viññāṇa is also one of the five classical experienced states and, as the most famous application of the Buddhist concept of pratītyasamutpāda (dependent arising), belongs to the twelve nidānas (avidyā - ignorance; saṃskāra - mental formations; vijñāna - consciousness; Nāmarūpa - name and form; Ṣaḍ six Sensory gates; Sparśa - contact; Vedanā - sensation; Tṛṣṇā or Taṇhā - desire or thirst; Upādāna - attachment; Bhava - becoming; Jāti - birth; Jarāmaraṇa - age, decay and death) which reveal the origin of the phenomena.

Later developments

The most important Buddhist philosophical schools are the Abhidharma schools, the systematic teaching exposition, especially Theravada and Sarvastivada , and the Mahayana schools. The latter include the Madhyamika , Yogacara , Huayan, and Tiantai schools.

The Bodhisattva , already known in Theravada , became another symbolic figure characterized by the 'four immeasurable attitudes' ( Brahmavihara ).

The later Mahayan three-body teaching of the Trikaya explained the three levels of Buddhahood. In addition, there was the Tibetan teaching of the illusory body (T. sgyu-lus) as the result of extremely advanced exercises of the completion level (T. rdzogs-rim, completion level) of the highest class of tantra, anuttarayogas . With this body, one attains the non-conceptual realization of voidness with a subtlest clear light mind.

The controversial concept of the ultimate great emptiness experienced practical further developments. Today's Drikung- kayu teaches that the void is permeated with the mind.

Cataphatic presentations

The Tathagatagarbha teachings of some schools of Mahayana Buddhism, the Theravada teachings of Bhavanga and the Yogachara - memory consciousness were all at one time characterized by the "shining mind" of the Nikayas ( Suttapitaka ).

The Tathagatagarbha Sutras , in a departure from the established Buddhist language, insist that the true self lies both in the heart of the Buddha himself and in nirvana and hidden within the mass of mental and moral pollutants that harm all beings.

Such teachings intended a departure from a largely apophatic-negative philosophical current within Buddhism to a decidedly cataphatic-positive mode.

The Tathagatagarbha, or Buddha-nature , according to some teachings, does not represent a substantial self. It is more of a positive language expression of Sunyata and represents the possibility of realizing Buddhahood through Buddhist practices.

In this interpretation, the intention of the Tathagatagarbha doctrine that every sentient being contains the inherent radiant Buddhic element or the permanent disposition to become a Buddha is more soteriological than theoretical.

The word atman is used in an idiosyncratic way in these sutras . For example, the “true self” is described as the perfection of the wisdom of not-self. The "true self" is the perfection of the wisdom of the non-self described, for example in the Buddha-Nature treatise.

Buddhists reject the existence of an atman as undesirable because they believe it provides the psychological basis for attachment and aversion. The Buddha called the Atman in the Majjhima Nikaya / 22 a nonsensical teaching. Buddhism sees the apparent self (our identification as souls) as grasping for a self - d. H. in so far as we have a self, we only have it through a deluded attempt to support it.

With the doctrine of the non-existence of a permanent and immutable self anatta (Sanskrit: anatman), which is counted as one of the three characteristics of existence , Buddhism presents the concept of the atman as unnecessary and counterproductive in explaining the analysis of action, causality, karma and rebirth . Buddhists explain these and other self-related phenomena by means such as the twelve - link chain of pratitya-samutpada , the skandhas , and in some schools, with pudgala , the person who is the substance and vehicle of the cycle of rebirth. Linguistic terms previously used by essentialist non-Buddhist philosophers have now been adapted and redefined by Buddhists to promote orthodox teachings.

Before the period of these writings, the metaphysics of the Mahayana was dominated by teachings about the void according to the Madhyamaka - philosophy of the "middle way" that the world and its appearances are not real, since they are always only from causal and self-insubstantial conditions ( pratītyasamutpādah ) or prerequisites arise and consequently do not have an independent being in them.

The language used in the anatta approach is mostly negative, and the Tathagatagarbha genre of sutras can be viewed as an attempt to present the orthodox Buddhist teachings of dependent arising in positive language to prevent people from turning away from Buddhism through a false impression of the Prevent nihilism.

In these sutras the perfection of the wisdom of the non-self is represented as the true self. The ultimate goal of the path is then characterized using a range of positive language previously used by essentialist philosophers in Indian philosophy, but which has now been converted into a new Buddhist vocabulary to describe a being who is the Buddhist path successfully completed.

Comparison with other philosophies

Baruch Spinoza , who advocated the existence of a permanent reality, claims that every phenomenal world is transitory. In his opinion, worry is overcome by finding an object of knowledge that is not transitory and not short-lived, but immutable, permanent, everlasting. Buddhism teaches that such pursuit must be unsuccessful.

David Hume , after a relentless analysis of the mind, concluded that consciousness must consist of flowing mental states. His bundle theory is a very similar concept to the Buddhist skandhas , although his refusal to cause it led him to opposite results in other areas.

Of all Western teachings, Arthur Schopenhauer's philosophy shows the greatest correspondence with Buddhism, especially with regard to the recognition that all suffering in the world is caused by desire and that this can therefore only be overcome through (moderate) asceticism . At the same time, the thirst for life ( Tanha ) described by Schopenhauer as “will” is only one of several ephemeral factors of existence in Buddhism, while with Schopenhauer it represents the “thing in itself” that appears in space and time.

Ludwig Wittgenstein's " word games " agree with the warning against intellectual speculation as a diversionary maneuver, like the parable of the poison arrow.

Friedrich Nietzsche , who opposed Buddhism as another form of nihilism, developed his philosophy of accepting life as it is and of self-culture, which was very similar to Buddhism and better understandable to the West.

Martin Heidegger's ideas about being and nothing are viewed by some as being similar to Buddhism.

An alternative approach to comparing Buddhist thought with Western philosophy is to use the notion of the middle way in Buddhism as a crucial tool in assessing Western philosophy. In this way, Western philosophies can be classified in Buddhist terms such as belief in eternity or nihilism.

Buddhist philosophers

See also

literature

  • Elías Capriles: The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy: a distinction of viewpoints with reference to the ultimate meaning.
  • Edward Conze : Buddhist Thought. Three phases of Buddhist philosophy in India. Insel, Frankfurt am Main (Ffm.) / Leipzig 1988, 2nd edition Suhrkamp (st 1772), Ffm. 1994, ISBN 3-518-38272-1 , Insel (it 3248), Ffm. 1st edition 2007, ISBN 978-3-458-34948-8 .
  • Erich Frauwallner : The Philosophy of Buddhism. 5th edition Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-05-004531-3
  • David J. Kalupahana : A history of Buddhist philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi 1994
  • Daniel Perdue : Debate in Tibetan Buddhism. Snow Lion Publications, 1992, ISBN 0-937938-76-9 .
  • Nagarjuna (author), Lutz Geldsetzer (translator), Zhong Lun: The teaching of the middle: Mula-madhyamaka-karika. Chinese - German.
  • Hansjörg Pfister: Philosophical Introduction to Early Buddhism. Verlag Reith & Pfister, Bötzingen 2004. ISBN 3-9805629-9-9 .
  • Wilhelm K. Essler , Ulrich Mamat: The philosophy of Buddhism. 1st edition. Scientific Book Society, 2005, ISBN 3-534-17211-6 .
  • Volker Zotz : History of Buddhist Philosophy . Rowohlt, Reinbek near Hamburg 1996, ISBN 3-499-55537-9 .
  • Jongmae Kenneth Park : The Teachings of Gautama Buddha. Lit Verlag, 2006. (An Introduction to Buddhism)
  • Max Walleser : The Buddhist philosophy in its historical development: The philosophical basis of the older Buddhism. Heidelberg, C. Winter (1904) Internet Archive (PDF; 15.6 MB)
  • Max Walleser: "The middle teaching (Mādhyamika-śāstra) of Nāgārjuna" / transferred from the Tibetan version, Heidelberg 1911 Internet Archive (PDF 14.5 MB)

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ David Kalupahana: Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, p. 70.
  2. ↑ Salāyatana
  3. ↑ Fritz Schäfer: Reality according to the teachings of the Buddha. Beyerlein and Steinschulte, ISBN 978-3-931095-60-4 .
  4. ↑ Brahman - the self
  5. ↑ Atma Bodha. (PDF; 60 kB)
  6. ↑ Sri Aurobindo: The Divine Life. Life Divine II, 28, p. 1065
  7. ↑ Nirvana. ( Memento of the original from April 12, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.shortpoems.org
  8. ↑ Pramana
  9. ↑ The Theravada commentary on the Nettipakarana, ascribed to Dhammapala, says (Pali: pamana corresponds to Sanskrit: pramana): "Na hello Palito annam pamanataram atthi", quoted in the Pali Text Society edition of Nettipakarana, 1902, p. 11, which Nanamoli translates as: "Because there is no other criterion about a text" (Der Führer, Pali Text Society, 1962, p. 11)
  10. ↑ Kalama Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya III, 65
  11. ↑ Randall Collins: The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, pp. 221-222.
  12. ↑ Satyadvaya  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 1.6 MB)@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de  
  13. ^ Richard H. Robinson: Some Logical Aspects of Nagarjuna's System. In: Philosophy East & West. Volume 6, no.4 (October 1957). University of Hawaii Press., P. 300.
  14. ↑ Yuganaddha Sutta
  15. ↑ 8. Reality from four different perspectives ( Memento of the original from August 30, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / basisreligion.reliprojekt.de
  16. ↑ a b Upaya teaching ( memento of the original from April 19, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.upaya.info
  17. ^ Gunnar Skirbekk, Nils Gilje: A history of Western thought: From ancient Greece to the 20th century. 7th edition, Routledge, 2001, p. 25.
  18. ↑ Mitchell: Buddhism. Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 34 and table of contents
  19. ^ Skorupski: Buddhist Forum. Vol. I, Heritage, Delhi / SOAS, London 1990, p. 5
  20. ↑ Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 21 (1998), Part 1, pp. 4, 11.
  21. ↑ Thanissaro Bhikkhu: Commentary on the Mulapariyaya Sutta.
  22. ^ Gunnar Skirbekk, Nils Gilje: A history of Western thought: From ancient Greece to the twentieth century. 7th edition published by Routledge, 2001, p. 26.
  23. ↑ The Nidanas.
  24. ^ Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of Dependent Co-arising.
  25. ↑ Garchen Rinpoche; Phowa inauguration 2008. Cdrom
  26. ↑ Garchen_Rinpoche
  27. ↑ Tathagatagarbha
  28. ^ Sallie B. King: The Doctrine of Buddha Nature is Impeccably Buddhist. ( Memento of the original from September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.nanzan-u.ac.jp
  29. ↑ Buddhanatur ( Memento of the original from June 24, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.tibet.de
  30. ^ Sallie B. King: The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature is impeccably Buddhist. Pp. 1-6.
  31. ↑ David Kalupahana: Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidass, 2006, p. 1.
  32. ↑ Helmuth von Glasenapp : The Indian world. Baden-Baden 1948, p. 292 ff.
  33. ↑ Parable of the poison arrow