Champa
Champa (also Aman , Khmer : ចាម្ប៉ា , Vietnamese : Chăm Pa ) is a generic term for the historical political-cultural network of domains of the Austronesian-speaking population living in today's South Vietnam , especially the Cham . Local inscriptions and Sino-Vietnamese sources have given us important information about Champa. Champa reached its heyday in the 9th and 10th centuries.
Cham piracy and slave hunts have been recorded on neighboring coasts. These actions then met with punitive expeditions and later with the medieval policy of conquest (“Nam tien”) of the Vietnamese, who finally assimilated the Cham almost completely in modern times.
Origin and Community
According to the prevailing opinion, the inhabitants of Champas (Cham, Rhade , Jarai ) came across the southern seas in prehistoric times and ethnically and linguistically assigned to the Malay and Polynesians . The Sa-Huynh culture is seen as the Iron Age predecessor . However, the Cham language is interspersed with numerous loan words, especially from Sanskrit , Khmer , Vietnamese , Chinese and Tamil . The Cham's clothing, appearance and material culture essentially corresponded to those of the Proto-Malay, i.e. the ancestors of the Malays who immigrated from southern China in the third millennium BC: Cotton robes, buns, earrings, unusual cleanliness, widespread use of perfume.
The formation of the state in the Cham settlement area evidently proceeded slowly and in stages. It is controversial whether the particularistic tradition of the sea nomads had any effect . In the early days of Champa there were several parallel centers with their own rulers who entered into alternating loose alliances, i.e. the state organization can best be understood as an ethnic, religious, political and commercial network. The particularist political organization was also due to the geography, that is, their land consisted of narrow valleys and steep mountain slopes and lacked good ports, which made the union difficult.
The political centers
At the beginning of the 10th century there were five Cham provinces: Inđrapura (between Deò Ngang and Huế ), Amaravati (between Huế and Đà Nẵng ), Vijaya (near Qui Nhơn), Kauthara (near Nha Trang) and Pan Duranga (between Phan Rang and Phan Thiết).
Lin-yi
First, in the last years of the Han dynasty (around 192) Khu Lien (called Qu Lián (區 連) in Chinese records), the son of a local magistrate, made himself king of “Lin-yi” in the south of the Je Nan headquarters “(Vietnamese Lâm Ấp).
The center of Lin-yi is believed to be in today's Huế , perhaps in Long Tho south of the Huong River . Archaeological evidence or Lin-yi's inscriptions are almost exclusively preserved in Sino-Vietnamese sources. Some authors now suspect that the Lin-yi inhabitants originally belonged to the Mon-Khmers in terms of language or that their territory is not identical with today's Vietnam, but with part of the Mekong region. To the south of Lin-yi there are also said to have been ten other small kingdoms on the coast.
Lin-yi occupied the Han with looting and border wars for two and a half centuries. With its narrow valleys, however, it could only feed a small population, and the high mountain ridges also made communication between the Cham difficult. But besides rice , sugar cane , cotton , pepper and other herbs were also grown . The most important commodity, however, was slaves . As early as 248, after the collapse of the Eastern Han dynasty in China, it was strong enough to attack the Chinese border provinces of Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen. After the Shuijing Shu (6th century), it was destroyed in 446 by a Sino-Vietnamese expedition. The Chinese under General T'an-Ho-che made lions out of paper and bamboo with which they could scare the opposing war elephants and thereby achieve an overwhelming victory.
Between 758 and 877, the Sino-Vietnamese chroniclers stopped using the term Lin-yi, instead using the term Huan-wang, which most likely referred to the south (i.e., Kauthara and Panduranga). Then came the term Chan-ch'eng, d. H. Town of Champa or Champapura on; and with it the word Champa.
Indrapura
After the expedition of 446, a neighboring center at Đà N heutigenng in today's province of Quảng Nam , which is also known as Indrapura, emerged. This region is known for its architecture, statues and inscriptions in Sanskrit and Cham. Archaeological sites are Đồng Dương, Mỹ Sơn and Trà Kiệu (cf. Cham architecture ).
In My Son, Bhadravarman I (around 399–413) had the “First Temple” built, of which only remains exist. Bhadravarman is also the earliest Cham king handed down with his Sanskrit name and he established the god Bhadresvara, a private variant of Shiva. At this time (4th century), the inhabitants of the region appear to have spoken the Cham language (e.g. inscriptions in archaic Cham similar to the royal Sanskrit texts). The "First Temple" was later destroyed by fire and rebuilt by King Sambhuvarman (Fan Fan-che, ruled around 595–629).
At the time of King Sambhuvarman (Fan Fan-che), the Chinese under General Liu Fang occupied the country in anticipation of richer tributes, but could not rule it effectively (605).
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In 875 Indravarman II. Indrapura (ruled around 875–898) established a new dynasty there. While the Shiva cult continued, Indravarman also introduced Buddhism. The following kings were active as builders and built z. B. My Son continues.
Indrapura was conquered in 982 by the Vietnamese Le Hoan (ruled 980-1005), a king of the early Le Dynasty, who responded to a previous attack by the Cham after the Cham king Paramesvaravarman had his ambassadors imprisoned. Paramesvaravarman lost his life in the war and his successor Indravarman IV then had to flee the capital. The Vietnamese destroyed the capital and civil war broke out among the Cham. In 989, Harivarman II restored Champa and sent a tribute to China.
At that time, the expansion of “Vietnam” (independent of China since 938) to the south (Namibia) began, combined with the occupation and cultivation of the land by the Vietnamese. There are ambiguous indications about the further affiliation of the Quang Nam region, most likely the Cham kings were still active there until the late 12th century.
Vijaya
From the 11th to the 15th centuries, the kings of Champa are located by the Vietnamese chroniclers in the region of Qui Nhon , i. H. in Vijaya. Yan Pu Ku, the successor of Harivarman II, moved the capital of Indrapura there around the year 1000.
The city was captured by the Vietnamese twice in the 11th century. In 1043, King Jaya Sinhavarman II had sent a few ships to plunder the Vietnamese coast, and also refused to pay tribute to Emperor Phat Ma (ruled 1028-1054). In 1044 Vietnam therefore sent its fleet and was able to destroy the unsuspecting Cham. The king was killed, the capital conquered. In 1068 history repeated itself under the Cham king Rudravarman III. (died 1074), who was captured and had to cede some areas in the north.
The next King Harivarman IV (ruled 1074-1081) was more successful. He fought back the Vietnamese and inflicted major defeats on the Khmer as well. In 1076 he attacked Vietnam in league with the Chinese and Khmer, but achieved no success. He also had Indrapura rebuilt.
In the 12th and early 13th centuries, the country was repeatedly conquered by the armies of the Khmer Empire, which established supremacy over the Cham kings. After the King of Champa had broken the alliance with Suryavarman II (ruled 1113–1150), the Khmer attacked in 1145 and conquered the capital. Despite this, the Cham remained active: King Jaya Harivarman I (1149 in Vijaya) became known through religious foundations and the sponsorship of scholars, one of whom became the next king. In 1177 even the Khmer capital Angkor temporarily fell into the hands of the Cham. But as early as 1190 the Khmer (King Jayavarman VII , ruled 1181 - around 1220) were able to defeat and capture Jaya Indravarman IV (ruled 1167–1190). In 1203 the attempt of the Cham prince Vidyānandana to overthrow the rule of the Khmer failed . It wasn't until the fall of the Khmer Empire that Champa was restored around 1226.
The invasion of Yuan China in 1283 remained an episode. Their reason was that the aged King Indravarman V (r. 1266–88) refused to appear in person at the imperial court and his son organized a revolt against the Chinese “viceroy”. In 1285 an agreement was reached with a mild tribute payment.
Far more serious was the threat posed by Vietnam. The abdicated king (or "emperor") of Vietnam came in 1301 on his pilgrimage to Champa and had promised the king there the hand of his daughter. The Vietnamese did not agree, however, and so in 1306 King Champas offered two of his border provinces (in today's Quang Tri and Thua Thien) as compensation. The trade was made invalid by the death of the king, the return of the princess (due to widow burning) and unrest in the provinces concerned: war broke out. In 1312 the Vietnamese conquered Champa and made it a province until it declared itself independent again under the Vietnamese viceroy Che Anan.
In the further course of the 14th century it came under the king Che Bong Nga (r. 1360-1390) to a counteroffensive of the Cham against Vietnam, taking advantage of the dynastic dispute with the falling Tran dynasty. In 1371 Che Bong Nga conquered the capital Hanoi (Thang Long): an attack that was successfully repeated in 1377 and 1383. In total, this warlike king made over ten attacks on Vietnam (Dai Viet). He was killed in a sea battle in which the Vietnamese massively used new firearms.
After 1441 the state disintegrated: civil wars, changes of ruler and Vietnamese interventions (e.g. 1446) shaped the picture. Finally, in 1471, the Vietnamese finally conquered the capital Vijaya. Depending on the source, 40,000 to 60,000 people were massacred and the prisoners were driven to Cape Varella. The present-day province of Bình Định was incorporated into Vietnam, the kingdom disappeared and its place was replaced by small, tributary principalities, which were then completely absorbed by the Vietnamese state in the 17th and 19th centuries. At the same time there was an emigration of the Cham to Malacca.
Kauthara and Panduranga
The fourth center of the Cham was Kauthara, at modern Nha Trang in Khanh Hoa province. It is associated with the Quang Nam region from the inscriptions and finds. H. comparable to Indrapura, but existed until the end of the 17th century. A last center was at Phan Rang in the province of Ninh Thuận , i. H. in Panduranga. In Panduranga, too, Cham kings ruled for centuries, and most recently until 1832 under Vietnamese rule.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, the region of Panduranga and Kauthara was called "Huan-wang" by the Sino-Vietnamese chroniclers. In 744, the Malay and Javanese attacked Kauthara and plundered many temples, but were persecuted and defeated by King Satyavarman. 787 there was another Javanese attack. Satyavarman and his successors (8th / 9th centuries) resided in Panduranga and are also known as builders, e.g. B. in the sanctuary of Po Nagar near Nha Trang. Indravarman I (ruled approx. 787/802) is said to have extended his rule to all of Champa.
Today there are a few hundred thousand Chams left and the majority of them live in Ninh Thuan Province. Islam has been widespread among them since the 17th century at the latest.
List of rulers of Champa
Panduranga dynasty
- 757-770: Prithivîndravarman
- 774-780: Satyavarman
- 793-803: Indravarman I.
- 801-817: Harivarman
- 820–850: Vikrântavarman III.
Bhrigu dynasty
- 850: Bhadravarman I.
- 854-898: Indravarman II.
- 898-903: Jaya Simhavarman I.
- 903-905 ?: Jaya Saktivarman
- 905-910: Bhadravarman II.
- 918-959: Indravarman III.
- 960–971 / 972: Jaya Indravarman I.
- 971-982: Paramesvara Varman I.
- 982: Indravarman IV.
- 983–986: Lu'u Kê Tong (Annamite usurper)
- 988: Indravarman V.
Indrapura dynasty
- 991–998: Vijaya Shrî Harivarman II.
- 998-1007: Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Shri
- 1010: Harivarman III.
- 1018: Parasmesvara Varman II.
- 10 ?? - 1030: Vikranta Varman II.
- 1030-1044: Jaya Simhavarman II.
Vijâya dynasty
- 1044-1060: Jaya Paramesvara Varman I.
- 1060-1061: Bhadra Varman III.
- 1061-1074: Rudra Varman III.
Dynasties in the south
- 1074-1080: Harivarman IV.
- 1080-1081: Jaya Indravarman II.
- 1081-1086: Paramabodhisattva
- 1086–1113: Jaya Indravarman II (again)
- 1113–1129: Harivarman V.
- 1129-1145: Jaya Indravarman III.
- 1145–1147: Harideva (Viceroy)
- 1147–1166: Jaya Harivarman I.
- 1166–1167: Jaya Harivarman II.
- 1167–1190: Jaya Indravarman IV (usurper)
- 1190–1191: Surya Jayavarmadeva of Vijaya
- 1191–1192: Jaya Indravarman IV of Pandurang
- 1192–1203: Surya Jayavarmadeva (again)
- 1203–1220: Occupation by the Khmer
- 1220–1252: Jaya Paramesvara Varman II.
- 1252–1257: Jaya Indravarman V.
- 1257-1285: Jaya Indravarman VI.
- 1285–1307: Simhavarman IV. (Chê Mân)
- 1307-1313: Simhavarman V (Chê Chi)
- 1313-1318: Chê Nang
- 1318-1342: Chê A Nan
- 1342-1352: Chê Mô
- 1352-1360: Tra Hoa Bo-dê
- 1360-1390: Chê Bong Ngo
- 1390-1400: Simhavarman VI. (La Khai)
- 1400–1441: Jaya Indravarman VII. (Ba Dich Lai)
- 1441–1446: Vijaya (Maha Bi Cai)
- 1446-1449: Maha Qui Lai
- 1449-1458: Maha Qui Dô
- 1458-1460: Banla Tra Nguyet
- 1460-1471: Banla Tra Toan
Collection of Champa
- 1471–1478: Bô Tri Tri au Panduranga
- 1478-1505: Gulai
- 1505–? : Tra Toai
- 1543: Tra Phuc
- 1602: Po Klau Halu
- after 1602: Po Nit
- 1627-1644: Po Ramé
- after 1644: Po Nraup
- 1693: Po Saut
Dynasty Po (vassals of the Annamites)
- 1696–1728: Po Saktirai da putih (Po Saktiraydapith)
- 1728-1730: Po Ganvuh da putih
- 1731-1732: Po Thuttirai
- interregnum
- 1735-1763: Po Rattirai
- 1763-1765: Po Tathun da moh-rai
- 1765–1780: Po Tithuntirai da paguh
- 1780–1781: Po Tithuntirai da parang
- interregnum
- 1783–1786: Chei Krei porridge
- 1786–1793: Po Tithun da parang
- 1793–1799: Po Lathun da paguh (Po Ladhhuanpughuh)
- 1799–1822: Po Chong Chan (Po Sau Nun Can)
Culture
One notices a Hindu influence and Indian style in the Cham architecture at palaces and temples, which was then replaced by influences from the Khmer Empire and Java. As early as the end of the 2nd century, Indians from the Godavari and Krishna rivers could have come to Champa, as the (controversial) pillar inscription from Vô-canh suggests. Written evidence, for example stone inscriptions made between the fourth and fifteenth centuries, are partly in Sanskrit, partly in old Cham, or in both scripts. The religious cult never reached the proportions of the Khmer and the temples of the Cham remained simple tower shrines. The preferred gods were Shiva along with his wives and his son Ganesha. However, Buddhism also had monasteries and temples in Champa since the 9th century.
The Cham were not only seafarers, fishermen and pirates, but also experienced arable farmers with iron plows and 12-meter-high pumping stations for irrigation. They were also considered good weavers and metal workers. According to Chinese sources, they are said to have used brick construction as early as the 5th century.
The Indian caste system was not taken too seriously in Champa because it could not displace the clan system of the Indonesian island world. Noble women could marry men of lower castes if they only came from the same family group. Widow burnings were common at the royal court.
Apparently, there was no organized criminal justice system in Champa. Society was largely based on slavery. This fact contributed decisively to the downfall.
Early temple reliefs show that the Cham played staff zithers , harps (cf. the Indian vina ), flutes, frame drums , cymbals and gongs . The Chinese traveler Ma Tuan Ling mentioned musical instruments in the 5th century, some of which are still used today: a two-stringed string instrument (today kahni ), a cone oboe ( sarinai , derived from the Indian shehnai ), a two-headed drum ( ganang ), a small one Bell ( cheng ) and buffalo horns. Most of the music belonged to religious ceremonies and was stylistically divided according to its use in rites of passage (weddings, funerals) and seasonal celebrations. Dance theater performed the Indian epic Ramayana .
See also
- Champasak , a province in the south of Laos
- Kampong Cham (province) , in eastern Cambodia
literature
- Jean Chesneaux: History of Vietnam. Revised and supplemented edition. Translated from French into German by Ernst-Ulrich Kloock. Rütten & Loening, Berlin 1963.
- Charles Higham : Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Facts on File, New York NY 2004, ISBN 0-8160-4640-9 .
- Nicholas Tarling (Ed.): The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Volume 1: From Early Times to c. 1800. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge et al. 1992, ISBN 0-521-35505-2 .
- John Villiers (Ed.): Southeast Asia before the colonial era. 7th edition. Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-596-60018-9 ( Fischer Weltgeschichte 18).
- Dougald JW O'Reilly: Early civilizations of Southeast Asia. AltaMira Press, Lanham MD 2007, ISBN 978-0-7591-0279-8 ( Archeology of Southeast Asia ).
- George Coedès , Walter F. Vella: The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. 3rd edition. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu HI 1996, ISBN 0-8248-0368-X .
Web links
Individual evidence
- ↑ The opposite variant represented by Kern states that Champa was the original home of the Malays and that they spread from there over Indonesia and Polynesia. See Villiers (2001), p. 118.
- ↑ See Cambridge History of South East Asia, p. 153.
- ^ Higham (2004), article Cham civilization .
- ^ Villiers (2001), p. 119.
- ^ O'Reilly (2006), p. 136
- ↑ See D. O'Reilly (2006), p. 129 f.
- ^ Villiers (2001), p. 120
- ↑ See Nhung Tuyet Tran, Anthony Reid: Viet Nam: Borderless Histories ; P. 75
- ↑ The earliest Islamic traces can be dated back to the 11th century; at the beginning of the 15th century, a sister of the king who belonged to Islam was married to Majapahit . After the defeat by Vietnam in 1471, the number of converts to Islam increased sharply, and Champa rulers followed from 1607.
- ↑ See Vielliers (2001), pp. 60 ff. And p. 124
- ↑ Chesneaux and Kloock (1963), p. 33
- ↑ Stephen Addiss : Music of the Cham Peoples. In: Asian Music, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1971, pp. 32-38