Cynghanedd

The cynghanedd ( [kəŋ'haneð] ) ("harmony") is a component of the Welsh verse theory , which is based on a strictly defined interplay of consonant agreements (consonance) and internal rhyme within the line. In the older periods of Welsh poetry, consonance and internal rhyme were optional elements that were used to embellish verses and to join sections of verse. They evolved into a strictly defined system during the 13th century and became a mandatory part of the fashionable cywydd metrics during the 14th century . The cynghanedd was inspected during the Eisteddfod 's codified by Caerwys in 1523 and continues to be the characteristic element of Welsh poetry in the strict metrics. To this day it is claimed in a poem of up to two hundred lines in length in the competition for the main prize of the annual national Eisteddfod.

There are four main types of cynghanedd : cynghanedd lusg , cynghanedd sain , cynghanedd groes and cynghanedd draws .

Stress pattern

With the cynghanedd sain , groes and draws four different stress patterns are distinguished. To determine the stress pattern, the decisive factor is whether the last syllable of the line and the last syllable before the caesura are accented or unstressed. In Welsh, word stress usually falls on the penultimate syllable (panultima).

stressed - stressed:
unstressed - unstressed:
stressed - unstressed:
unstressed - stressed:

cytbwys acennog "emphasized equally
weighted " cytbwys diacen "unstressed equal
weighted " anghytbwys disgynedig "falling unequal
weighted " anghytbwys dyrchafedig "increasing unstressed weighted "

The stress pattern anghytbwys dyrchafedig occurs almost exclusively with the cynghanedd sain . Alternative names for anghytbwys disgynedig "falling unequal" and anghytbwys dyrchafedig "increasing unequal" are anghytbwys diacen "unstressed unequal" and anghytbwys acennog "emphatically unequal".

Prifacen "main accent"

The last stressed syllable before the caesura and before the end of the line bears the so-called main accent (Wal. Prifacen ) of the respective line section and plays a special role in the correspondence of the consonants. The position of the corresponding consonants to the left and right of the main accent must always match in the line sections:

Cynghanedd

The cynghanedd groes and draws are grouped as cynghanedd gytsain ("consonant harmony") because they do not contain any rhyme. In addition to the basic and special forms presented below, there is an abundance of other special forms that is difficult to understand. Special rules must also be observed when certain consonants meet and when groups of consonants, semi-vowels, certain individual consonants and internal rhyme are treated.

The line is divided by a caesura (Wal. Gorffwysfa "resting place, pause") into two parts or sections (Wal. Rhan "part, section"), but with the cynghanedd sain by two caesuras into three parts. For special forms such as B. the cynghanedd sain deirodl ("three-rime sound harmony") or the cynghanedd sain gadwynog ("concatenated sound harmony") the line has three caesuras and thus four sections. The number of syllables in the line basically depends on the meter chosen for the poem. However, since the seven-syllable cywydd deuair hirion ("long two-line cywydd ") is by far the most popular meter to which the cynghanedd was and is applied, lines with seven syllables are most common.

Cynghanedd lusg "drag harmony "

The cynghanedd lusg requires an internal rhyme, but no consonance. The line ends in a polysyllabic word that has the inner rhyme of cynghaneddd lusg on the stressed syllable, so that the end rhyme of the line cannot coincide with the inner rhyme. Another word inside the line carries the inner rhyme either on an unstressed or stressed syllable. This inner rhyme can basically lie on any syllable between the first and fifth syllable of the line, whereby the rhyming word always precedes the caesura.

Put simply, the last syllable before the caesura rhymes with the penultimate syllable of the line:

Duw er ei r ádd | a'i ádd ef
Mae Hýw el | fab Llyw él yn

Cynghanedd sain "sound harmony"

Basic form

The line has two caesuras and thus three parts. The first part of the line is connected to the second by an internal rhyme. The second part is connected to the third by consonant correspondence.

Unlike the cynghanedd groes and draws , the cynghanedd sain only requires the consonant correspondence with the consonant immediately preceding the last stressed vowel of the line. Usually consonant groups that contain - l and - r as the last element (like br - in the first example) are also completely matched. Consonantic equivalents beyond this are optional, but as in the second ( -chfr- ) and third ( -ll- ) examples they occur frequently.

( cytbwys acennog )
( cytbwys diacen )
( anghytbwys disgynedig )
( anghytbwys dyrchafedig )

Selected special forms

Cynghanedd sain deirodl

The cynghanedd sain deirodl ("three-rime sound harmony") has three caesuras and four sections. The first three sections have internal rhymes, the last two consonantic counterparts.

Rhoi rh odd | or odd , | g órm odd | g wést

Cynghanedd sain gadwynog

The cynghanedd sain gadwynog ("concatenated sound harmony") also has three caesuras and four sections. The first and third sections have internal rhymes, the second and fourth consonantic correspondence.

Gan d ant | gl ýwed | moli ant | gl án

Cynghanedd sain drosgl

In the cynghanedd sain drosgl ("awkward sound harmony") the rhyming word in the second line section has more than two syllables. Its first consonant matches the corresponding consonant in the third section of the line. Contrary to the usual pattern, this results in a match between an unstressed and a stressed syllable.

Rhag b od , | nid c ydnáb od | c áin

Cynghanedd great "Cross Harmony"

Basic form

In the cynghanedd groes , all consonants in the first line segment correspond to the consonants in the second line segment in the same order. Only the last consonant of the line ( -n , -f , -l in the examples below ) does not have to be matched. In its place of the cynghanedd great gytbwys acennog (first example below) and the cynghanedd great gytbwys ddiacen (second example) in the first part of the line before the caesura, any consonant, any consonant group or even no consonant at all can be used.

Ewy ll y s d úw | yw ll e s d ýn
T e g é dr ych | t ua g á dr ef
G wa nh auʼ r ŵy f | g a n h i r ó f al

( cytbwys acennog )
( cytbwys diacen )
( anghytbwys disgynedig )

The two equally weighted forms ( cynghanedd groes gytbwys acennog and cynghanedd groes gytbwys ddiacen ), in which the two line sections could be swapped without the cynghanedd becoming incorrect, are also referred to under the generic term cynghanedd groes rywiog ("exquisite cross harmony" or " ") summarized.

Selected special forms

Lost n

One speaks of coll n ( "lost n ") if a at the beginning of a line standing n or directly following the break of a line n are not met. Although this does not correspond to all consonants in the regularly required manner, such a cynghanedd is still considered a cynghanedd great . An unanswered n at the beginning of the line is referred to as n wreiddgoll (" n lost at the root "), an unanswered n following the caesura as n ganolgoll (" n lost in the center ").

AN ll ywó dr aeth | a ll á dr ad
Ll wy th oʼ r c álch | yN ll e th uʼr c óed

( n wreiddgoll )
( n ganolgoll )

More rarely also occur r or m as r wreiddgoll or m wreiddgoll on.

Cynghanedd great o gyswllt

In the cynghanedd groes o gyswllt ("bound cross harmony") the correspondence of the consonants in the second line segment begins before the caesura. The affected consonants are occasionally scored in both the first and second line segments (e.g. in the second example).

Y g ŵ r a dd ú ( g | a r wy dd iách
D ê l i m ( d á l | a m y d ó l ur

Cynghanedd draws "Bridge Harmony "

Basic form

The basic principle of the cynghanedd draws is the same as that of the cynghanedd large . With the cynghanedd draws , however, the consonants directly following the caesura may remain in the first part of the line without corresponding.

D a gr au g wáed | ar ( d e g ei r y g wýn
D y ẃy n eb | fal (o d ú nn os
G wŷ s y m M ó n | mai ( g wa s m ý n aich

( cytbwys acennog )
( cytbwys diacen )
( anghytbwys disgynedig )

Selected special forms

Lost n

The principle of coll n ("lost n ") in cynghanedd draws corresponds to that of coll n in cynghanedd groes , but in cynghanedd draws only the n wreiddgoll occurs at the beginning of the line, as the correspondence of consonants to the caesura follow directly where cynghanedd draws is not provided.

Ni d yw b óen | eisiau ( d a b ýd

The "lost n " in the cynghanedd draws was classified as illegal by Simwnt Fychan, a 16th century authority. However, it is well documented in works of the 14th and 15th centuries.

Cynghanedd draws fantach

A cynghanedd draws gytbwys acennog , in which the caesura already follows the first or, more rarely, the second syllable, is referred to as cynghanedd draws fantach ("toothy bridge harmony").

Dr úd | yr adwaenwn dy ( dr ó

Cynghanedd draws gyferbyn

A cynghanedd draws gytbwys ddiacen , in which the caesura follows the second syllable, i.e. H. in which the first and last two syllables of the line correspond, is called cynghanedd draws gyferbyn ("opposing bridge harmony ").

Éi s iau | at gymwyn (á s wr

Special rules

The multitude of special rules, especially for the correspondence of consonants, can seem complicated, if not arbitrary, to the beginner. However, in very few cases these are real exceptions or licenses. Rather, they serve to bridge the gap between phonetic and orthographic reality, especially in connection with assimilation processes when consonants meet. Only a selection is given here.

Internal rhyme

ai and ei , au and eu

With the cynghanedd lusg a form of the half-rhyme is allowed in which a diphthong rhymes with its own umlaut product. Ai can rhyme with ei as well as au with eu . Comparable in German would be to rhyme “lazy” with “horses”. A cynghanedd lusg with this type of half-rhyme is called a cynghanedd lusg wyrdro ("twisted trailing harmony ").

Pum canw aith | y gob eith iwn
Lle bu aur | am yd eur udd

y and u

The rhyme of y and u is permitted, except for y is a one syllable word, where it is used in the stressed syllable (Pänultima) schwa ( [⁠ ə ⁠] is pronounced).

Ni b ydd | wedi Gruff udd Gryg

- yg and ig

The unstressed final syllable - yg can be rhymed with ig .

Nid annheb yg , | ddidd ig | ddydd

consonance

In the Welsh alphabet, ch , dd , ff , ng , ngh , ll , mh , nh , ph , rh and th represent separate phonemes . So dd , ff and ll are not double consonants.

Processes in which a voiced consonant becomes unvoiced are called calediad ("hardening"). It is usually caused by contact with a voiceless fricative . A hardening that is triggered when a voiced plosive or frictional sound meets its unvoiced counterpart is called ceseiliad ("assimilation"). If a process takes place in which a voiceless consonant becomes voiced, one speaks of meddalu ("soften, soften").

Identical consonants named multiple times in direct succession may correspond to an identical consonant named only once in the other line section, as long as the multiple named consonants follow one another directly or are separated from one another by no more than one vowel.

Mae e r y r llwyd | am wŷ r llên

h does not have to, but may be answered.
r [⁠ r ⁠] and RH [ R ] may correspond to each other. Sometimes the same procedure is used with n and nh [ n̩ ], m and mh [ m̩ ], ng and ngh [ ŋ̍ ].

A r Gydweli | rh ag dolur
Y m mh ob pen | y m ae piniwn

ff and ph are merely orthographic variants of the same texts, ( [⁠ f ⁠] ), and therefore equivalent.
sb and sp (both [ sb ]) as well as sg and sc (both [ sg ]) are also orthographic variants that correspond to each other or to the individual consonants s and b / g .
The - c in ac and nac , the [⁠ g ⁠] is pronounced, should with g be answered.

Arian a c aur | hyn a g af

ng [⁠ ŋ ⁠] (., such as in angel "Angel";. dt example "Tang") and ng [ ŋɡ .] (such as in Dangos "show";. dt example "Tango" ) do not correspond to each other.
nb and mb correspond to each other, as do np and mp .
Meets a voiced plosive ( b , d , g ) directly to a following h -, s -, ff - [⁠ f ⁠] , ll - [⁠ ɬ ⁠] or rh - [ R ], the plosive is counted as voiceless ( p , t , c ).

-b, -d, -g + h- = p, t, c
-b, -d, -g + s- = p, t, c
-b, -d, -g + ff- = p, t, c
-b, -d, -g + ll- = p, t, c
-b, -d, -g + rh- = pr, tr, cr

This also applies if h - is preceded by a consonant group consisting of a voiced plosive sound and - l or - r ( bl , dl , gl , br , dr , gr ).

-bl, -dl, -gl + h- = pl, tl, cl
-br, -dr, -gr + h- = pr, tr, cr

Example: Bwrw pl yg | ar bara bl h ygar
Example: Fy llew cr yf, | a Lloe gr h efyd

If two identical voiced plosives meet, they are rated as voiceless.

-b + b-, -d + d-, -g + g- = p, t, c

Example: Dal t ŷ | ag adeila d d a

If voiced plosives meet their unvoiced counterpart, they are rated as voiceless ( ceseiliad "assimilation").

-b + p-, -d + t-, -g + c- or -p + b-, -t + d-, -c + g- = p, t, c

Example: Breuddwy d t ost | oedd briddio'u t ad

Meeting voiced fricatives ( dd [⁠ ð ⁠] , f [⁠ v ⁠] ) on their unvoiced counterpart ( th [⁠ thetav ⁠] , ff [⁠ f ⁠] ), they are considered voiceless valued ( ceseiliad "assimilation").

-f + ff-, -dd + th- or -ff + f-, -dd + th- = ff, th

Example: Pra ff f onedd | pur a ff yniant

Meets l [⁠ l ⁠] to ll [⁠ ɬ ⁠] it is judged as the unvoiced fricative ( [⁠ ɬ ⁠] ) ( ceseiliad "Assimilation").

Cawn'i ll iw | fel cannwy ll l as

- t is counted as voiced ( d ) in the consonant groups ct , cht , fft , llt , pt and st . This does not apply if there is a space between - c , - ch , - ff , - ll , - p and - s and t -.

Dy wa llt aur | i dwy ll o d yn
Tri st yw'r cwyn | tro s aw d ur cerdd

Analysis example

The following six lines are the beginning of the poem Y Dylluan "The Owl" by Dafydd ap Gwilym in the meter cywydd deuair hirion . The cywydd deuair hirion consists of a sequence of any length of seven-syllable pairs of lines with end rhymes with alternating male and female cadence , i.e. H. one line of the pair ends on a stressed syllable, the other on an unstressed syllable. The sequence of the cadences within the line pairs is not prescribed.

When analyzing the cynghanedd , the line is first searched for internal rhymes, whereby the possibility of a cynghanedd lusg must be taken into account if there is a polysyllabic word at the end of the line . If none of the rhyming cynghanedd forms can be identified, use the last stressed syllable of the line as a starting point to look for corresponding consonants from back to front.

Truan i'r dylluan d ég
Ar ddistial na rydd óst eg :
Ni ad ym ganu 'mhád er ,
Ni thau tra fo siamplau s êr .
Ni chaf - och o'r goráf un ! -
Gysgu, na heddychu, h ún .
...

c. sain anghytbwys ddyrchafedig
c. groes gytbwys ddiacen ( n ganolgoll )
c. lusg
c. sain anghytbwys ddyrchafedig
c. lusg
c. sain drosgl

It is a misery with the beautiful owl, who
gives no rest on a branch:
If my father does not let me speak,
Will not be silent as long as there are stars in the sky.
I can't - alas, what an obstacle! -
Sleep peacefully, still rest.
...

Individual evidence

↑ quoted from dafyddapgwilym.net , poem no. 61, lines 1–6.

literature

John Davies, Nigel Jenkins, Menna Baines, Peredur I. Lynch (Eds.): The Welsh Academy Encyclopedia of Wales . University of Wales Press, Cardiff 2008, ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6 , pp. 187 .
DM Lloyd, RVF Brogan, M. Bruch: Cynghanedd. In: Roland Greene, Stephen Cushman et al. (Ed.): The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th edition. Princeton University Press, Princeton 2012, ISBN 978-0-691-13334-8 , p. 328 f ( limited preview in Google book search).
Mererid Hopwood: Singing in chains: listening to Welsh verse . Gomer, Llandysul 2004, ISBN 1-84323-402-5 .
Alan Llwyd: Anghenion y Gynghanedd. Fersiwn newydd . Cyhoeddiadau Barddas, Llandybie 2007, ISBN 978-1-900437-98-1 .
John Morris-Jones: Cerdd Dafod . Clarendon Press, Oxford 1925, ISBN 0-7083-0722-1 (Reprint: Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru, Caerdydd 1980).

Web links

cynghanedd.com (Welsh website)
clywed cynghanedd (Welsh website)

[1] quoted from dafyddapgwilym.net , poem no. 61, lines 1–6.